Belet-Šuḫnir And Belet-Terraban
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Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban were a pair of
Mesopotamian goddesses Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively Anthropomorphism, anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore ''melam'', a ...
best known from the archives of the
Third Dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC ( middle chronology). For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by ...
, but presumed to originate further north, possibility in the proximity of modern
Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...
and ancient
Eshnunna Eshnunna (also Esnunak) (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Governorate, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia 12.6 miles northwest of Tell Agrab and 15 miles northwest of Tell Ishchali. Althou ...
. Their names are usually assumed to be derived from cities where they were originally worshiped. Both in ancient sources, such as ritual texts,
seal Seal may refer to any of the following: Common uses * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, also called "true seal" ** Fur seal ** Eared seal * Seal ( ...
inscriptions and god lists, and in modern scholarship, they are typically treated as a pair. In addition to Ur and Eshnunna, both of them are also attested in texts from
Susa Susa ( ) was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh River, Karkheh and Dez River, Dez Rivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the capital o ...
in
Elam Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
. Their character remains poorly understood due to scarcity of sources, though it has been noted that the tone of many festivals dedicated to them was "lugubrious," which might point at an association with the
underworld The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. ...
.


Names

The names of Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban, written conventionally as '' dBe-la-at-Šuḫ-nir'' and ''dBe-la-at-Dar-ra-ba-an'', can be translated as, respectively, "lady of Šuḫnir" and "lady of Terraban." They are derived from the presumed cult centers of these goddesses whose precise location remains uncertain. In sources postdating the
Ur III period The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC (middle chronology). For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by ...
, the first element could be represented logographically with the
cuneiform Cuneiform is a Logogram, logo-Syllabary, syllabic writing system that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Near East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. Cuneiform script ...
sign NIN, though this alternate writing is only known from
Eshnunna Eshnunna (also Esnunak) (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Governorate, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia 12.6 miles northwest of Tell Agrab and 15 miles northwest of Tell Ishchali. Althou ...
. Furthermore, the toponym Šuḫnir started to be written as Šuknir in later periods. According to Antonie Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik both of the discussed cities were likely located in the proximity of modern
Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...
. They might have belonged to Simurrum. Douglas Frayne concluded that both cities were located next to each other on the road which lead from the intersection of
Jebel Hamrin Hamrin is a town in northern Iraq which sits on the western shore of a man-made lake of the same name, both of which are at the southern extreme of the Hamrin Mountains. Hamrin is home to approximately 25,000 people. Most revenue comes from fishi ...
and the
Diyala River The Diyala (Arabic: ; ; Farsi: , ) is a river and tributary of the Tigris. It is formed by the confluence of the Sirwan and Tanjaro rivers in Darbandikhan Dam in the Sulaymaniyah Governorate of Northern Iraq. It covers a total distance of . ...
to ancient Arrapha. He further suggests that Terraban might correspond to "Terqan opposite
Gutium The Guti (), also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a people of the ancient Near East who both appeared and disappeared during the Bronze Age. Their homeland was known as Gutium ( Sumerian: , ''GutūmKI'' or , ''GutiumKI''). ...
" known from Mesopotamian sources, and to modern Tawwuq. The city is attested already in Old Akkadian documents from Gasur (later Nuzi). In contrast, Šuḫnir is not well attested as a toponym in known sources. Markus Hilgert suggests that since its writing is not uniform, it might have originated in a language different from Sumerian or Akkadian. On this basis he concludes that seeking phonetically similar geographic terms is difficult. A less plausible proposal is that the name of Belet-Šuḫnir should instead be interpreted as "lady of the noble diadem" (Belet SUH.NIR).


Character

In known sources, Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban almost always appear together. This is well attested in the archives from the Ur III period, where only a handful of texts mention Belet-Šuḫnir on her own. In the texts of the Ur administration where the two are paired, Belet-Šuḫnir always precedes Belet-Terraban, though in inscriptions from two seals from
Eshnunna Eshnunna (also Esnunak) (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Governorate, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia 12.6 miles northwest of Tell Agrab and 15 miles northwest of Tell Ishchali. Althou ...
(Tell Asmar) they are arranged in the opposite order. The reverse order is also present in an offering list from this city. They also occur one after another in the Weidner god list, where they precede
Gazbaba Gazbaba, also known as Kazbaba or Kazba, was a Mesopotamian goddess closely associated with Inanna, Nanaya and Kanisurra. Like them, she was connected with love and eroticism. Name and character Gazbaba's name is most likely derived from the Akka ...
, and in the
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
god list. They are also commonly discussed together in modern publications, and share a single entry in the ''
Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie The ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie'' (RlA), formerly ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie'', is a multi-language (English, German, and French) encyclopedia on the Ancient Near East The ancient Near East was home to ...
''. Available information about the nature of Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban is scarce. The tone of
festival A festival is an event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, Melā, mela, or Muslim holidays, eid. A ...
s dedicated to them has been described as "lugubrious" by researchers. Examples include "place of disappearance" (''níg-ki-zàḫ''), a wailing ceremony (''girranum'') and the "festival of chains" (''še-er-še-ru-um''). Mark E. Cohen has proposed that they might have reflected a myth about their descent to the
underworld The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. ...
, which involved them being restrained, but Tonia Sharlach notes that caution is necessary, as it is difficult to determine the individual character of deities only based on the names of festivals during which they were venerated.


Worship

Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban were worshiped in the court of the
Third Dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC ( middle chronology). For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by ...
. It is conventionally assumed that they were introduced to southern Mesopotamia due to a political marriage between a king of Ur and a princess from the north. Shulgi-simti, a wife of
Shulgi Shulgi ( dšul-gi,(died c. 2046 BC) formerly read as Dungi) of Ur was the second king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. He reigned for 48 years, from (Middle Chronology). His accomplishments include the completion of construction of the Great ...
, is commonly considered a plausible candidate for this role. However, according to Tonia Sharlach this proposal should be approached cautiously, even though many attestations of both goddesses are indeed tied to Shulgi-simti's religious activity. Geme-Sin, another wife of Shulgi, also made offerings to them on occasion. As of 2002, around seventy texts from the
Puzrish-Dagan Puzrish-Dagan (modern Drehem) (Tall ad-Duraihim) is an important archaeological site in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate (Iraq). It is best-known for the thousands of clay tablets that are known to have come from the site through looting during the ear ...
archives mentioning the pair were known. Sharlach states that this would place them far ahead of other foreign deities venerated in the royal court at the time, such as Allatum, Belet Nagar, Dagan, Ḫabūrītum or
Šauška Šauška (Shaushka), also called Šauša or Šawuška, was the highest ranked goddess in the Hurrian pantheon. She was associated with love and war, as well as with incantations and by extension with healing. While she was usually referred to as ...
. However, she notes that whether they can be considered to belong to this category relies on the precise location of their cult centers. According to Douglas Frayne's proposal they would be located north of the border of the Ur state, but in a more recent publication Sharlach notes that since Eshnunna was a "core province," goddesses originating in its proximity were not necessarily understood as "foreign." The royal worship of Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban is best attested during the reign of Shulgi, with the first attestation coming from the twenty ninth year of his reign, but they still appear in documents connected to the subsequent kings, as late as during the second year of
Ibbi-Sin Ibbi-Sin (, ), (died c. 2004 BC) son of Shu-Sin, was king of Sumer and Akkad and last king of the Ur III dynasty, and reigned c. 2028–2004 BC (Middle chronology). During his reign, the Sumerian empire was attacked repeatedly by Amorites. As f ...
's reign. Their popularity apparently diminished after Shulgi's death, and they seemingly were no longer worshiped in southern Mesopotamia after the fall of his dynasty. Most of the known texts indicate that they received offerings in Ur, with
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory'': Vol. 1, Part 1, Ca ...
and
Uruk Uruk, the archeological site known today as Warka, was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq. The site lies 93 kilo ...
mentioned less often in relation to them. A
temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...
dedicated to both of them existed in the last of these cities. Babati, who was the brother of Abi-simti, a wife of
Amar-Sin Amar-Sin (: '' DAmar D Sîn'', "calf of Sîn", the "𒀭" being a silent honorific for "Divine"),(died c. 2037 BC) initially misread as Bur-Sin (c. 2046–2037 BC) middle chronology, was the third ruler of the Ur III Dynasty. He succeeded his fa ...
, was a temple administrator (''sanga'') of the pair. The existence of a ''guda4'' priest (or priests) of both goddesses is also attested in a single document. In documents pertaining to the activity of Shulgi-simti, Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban typically appear alongside Annunitum and
Ulmašītum Ulmašītum was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as warlike. Her name was derived from (E-)Ulmaš, a temple in the city of Akkad dedicated to Ishtar. She was commonly associated with Annunitum, and in many texts they appear as a pair. While she o ...
, who both originated as warlike hypostases of
Ishtar Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
. In two texts dealing with distribution of sacrificial animals they are listed alongside
Inanna Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
of Uruk and the weather god Ishkur. In sources postdating the death of Shulgi-simti, they typically occur alongside deities associated with the underworld. Both Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban were also worshiped in Eshnunna. The former had a temple there. Šu-ilīya, a contemporary of
Ibbi-Sin Ibbi-Sin (, ), (died c. 2004 BC) son of Shu-Sin, was king of Sumer and Akkad and last king of the Ur III dynasty, and reigned c. 2028–2004 BC (Middle chronology). During his reign, the Sumerian empire was attacked repeatedly by Amorites. As f ...
and
Ishbi-Erra Ishbi-Erra ( Akkadian: d''iš-bi-ir₃-ra'') was the founder of the dynasty of Isin, reigning from c. 2017— 1986 BC ( MC). Ishbi-Erra was preceded by Ibbi-Sin of the third dynasty of Ur in ancient Lower Mesopotamia, and then succeeded by ...
, called himself the "beloved" (''na-ra-am'') of both of these goddesses in a
seal Seal may refer to any of the following: Common uses * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, also called "true seal" ** Fur seal ** Eared seal * Seal ( ...
inscription in which he also invokes the local god
Tishpak Tishpak (Tišpak) was a Mesopotamian god associated with the ancient city Eshnunna and its sphere of influence, located in the Diyala area of Iraq. He was primarily a war deity, but he was also associated with snakes, including the mythical mu ...
. It is assumed that they were major members of this city's pantheon in the Old Babylonian period. However, no attestations of Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban from this city postdate the reign of Nur-ahum. They are mentioned in a document referring to the so-called "Great Offering" which was celebrated during particularly significant festivals. The only other deities mentioned are Tishpak, Inanna of Uruk,
Sin In religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered ...
,
Adad Hadad (), Haddad, Adad ( Akkadian: 𒀭𒅎 '' DIM'', pronounced as ''Adād''), or Iškur ( Sumerian) was the storm- and rain-god in the Canaanite and ancient Mesopotamian religions. He was attested in Ebla as "Hadda" in c. 2500 BCE. From ...
, Belet Ekallim, a deity whose name starts with ''Bel-'' but is not fully preserved, and Ishtar ''ki-ti''. A certain Ammi-ištamar, an
Amorite The Amorites () were an ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking Bronze Age people from the Levant. Initially appearing in Sumerian records c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant, Mesopotamia and parts of Egypt from the 21st century BC ...
chief (''ra-bi-a-an'' MAR.DU), dedicated an
onyx Onyx is a typically black-and-white banded variety of agate, a silicate mineral. The bands can also be monochromatic with alternating light and dark bands. ''Sardonyx'' is a variety with red to brown bands alternated with black or white bands. ...
vase to Belet-Šuḫnir at some point in the Old Baylonian period. Gianni Marchesi points out that he was apparently a Tidnean, and therefore likely resided in the east of Mesopotamia, as this term apparently designated an Amorite group dwelling in these areas in the Ur III period. The pair continued to appear in god lists through the first millennium BCE.


In Susa

Belet-Terraban is also attested among the deities worshiped in
Susa Susa ( ) was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh River, Karkheh and Dez River, Dez Rivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the capital o ...
in
Elam Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
, though she only occurs in a single inscription from the reign of Puzur-Inšušinak, preserved on a statuette found during the excavations of the area referred to as the "Susa Acropole." It has been argued that this text might indicate that the Elamite ruler at some point controlled the Diyala area. Tonia Sharlach points out it is the only reference to this goddess predating the Ur III period. According to Ran Zadok, the theonym ''dŠu-nir'', known from texts from Susa, corresponds to Belet-Šuḫnir, and therefore she should be considered one of the Mesopotamian deities worshiped in the surrounding area, so-called Susiana, in the Old Akkadian period. Other well attested examples include Ilaba and
Ningirsu Ninĝirsu was a Mesopotamia, Mesopotamian god regarded as the tutelary deity of the city of Girsu, Ĝirsu, and as the chief god of the local pantheon of the state of Lagash. He shares many aspects with the god Ninurta. Ninĝirsu was identified as ...
. However, Piotr Steinkeller and Manfred Krebernik interpret ''dŠu-nir'' as a deified
standard Standard may refer to: Symbols * Colours, standards and guidons, kinds of military signs * Standard (emblem), a type of a large symbol or emblem used for identification Norms, conventions or requirements * Standard (metrology), an object ...
instead.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{refend Mesopotamian goddesses Elamite goddesses Mythological duos