The battle of Preston was fought on 17 August 1648 during the

Second English Civil War The Second English Civil War took place between February and August 1648 in Kingdom of England, England and Wales. It forms part of the series of conflicts known collectively as the 1639–1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which include the 164 ...

. A Parliamentarian army commanded by

Lieutenant General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was norma ...

Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English statesman, politician and soldier, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in British history. He came to prominence during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, initially ...

attacked a considerably larger force of Royalists under James Hamilton, Duke of Hamilton, near the

Lancashire Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated ''Lancs'') is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Cumbria to the north, North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire to the east, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south, and the Irish Sea to ...

town of Preston; the Royalists were defeated with heavy losses. The

First English Civil War The First English Civil War took place in England and Wales from 1642 to 1646, and forms part of the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. An estimated 15% to 20% of adult males in England and Wales served in the military at some point b ...

between Royalist supporters of Charles I and an alliance of Parliamentarian and Scottish forces ended in 1646 with Charles defeated and imprisoned. He continued to negotiate with several factions among his opponents and this sparked the Second English Civil War in 1648. It began with a series of

mutinies Mutiny is a revolt among a group of people (typically of a military or a crew) to oppose, change, or remove superiors or their orders. The term is commonly used for insubordination by members of the military against an officer or superior, b ...

and Royalist uprisings in England and Wales. Meanwhile, a political struggle in Scotland led to a faction which supported Charles, known as the

Engagers The Engagers were a faction of the Scottish Covenanters, who made "The Engagement" with King Charles I in December 1647 while he was imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle by the English Parliamentarians after his defeat in the First Civil War. ...

, gaining power. The Scots raised an army which crossed into England at

Carlisle Carlisle ( , ; from ) is a city in the Cumberland district of Cumbria, England. Carlisle's early history is marked by the establishment of a settlement called Luguvalium to serve forts along Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain. Due to its pro ...

on 8 July to support the uprisings. Combining with English Royalists they marched south along the west coast road some 24,000 strong. Much smaller Parliamentarian forces fell back in front of them. Cromwell was suppressing uprisings in south Wales with 5,000 men during May and June; he captured the last Royalist stronghold on 11 July and was marching east within a week. Cromwell concentrated 9,000 men in north

Yorkshire Yorkshire ( ) is an area of Northern England which was History of Yorkshire, historically a county. Despite no longer being used for administration, Yorkshire retains a strong regional identity. The county was named after its county town, the ...

and crossed the

Pennines The Pennines (), also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills, are a range of highland, uplands mainly located in Northern England. Commonly described as the "Vertebral column, backbone of England" because of its length and position, the ra ...

to fall on the flank of the much larger Royalist army at Preston. Not contemplating that Cromwell would act so recklessly, Hamilton was caught with his army on the march and with large detachments too far away to intervene. A blocking force of about 3,000 English Royalist

infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...

, many ill-armed and inadequately trained, proved no match for the Parliamentarians, most of whom were well-trained veterans from the

New Model Army The New Model Army or New Modelled Army was a standing army formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians during the First English Civil War, then disbanded after the Stuart Restoration in 1660. It differed from other armies employed in the 1639 t ...

. After a ferocious hour-long fight these Royalists were outflanked on both sides, which caused them to break. The largest part of the Royalist army, predominately Scottish, was marching south immediately to the rear of this fighting. Most had crossed a bridge over the Ribble, a major river just south of Preston; those still to the north of it were swept away by the Parliamentarian cavalry and either killed or taken prisoner. A second round of prolonged infantry hand-to-hand fighting took place for control of the bridge; the Parliamentarians were again victorious, fighting their way across as night fell. Most of the survivors, nearly all Scottish, were to the south of Preston. Although still at least as strong as the whole Parliamentarian army they fled towards

Wigan Wigan ( ) is a town in Greater Manchester, England. The town is midway between the two cities of Manchester, to the south-east, and Liverpool, to the south-west. It is the largest settlement in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan and is its ad ...

in a night march. They were hotly pursued and on 19 August were caught and defeated again at the battle of Winwick. Most of the surviving Scots surrendered: their infantry either at Winwick or nearby

Warrington Warrington () is an industrial town in the Borough of Warrington, borough of the same name in Cheshire, England. The town sits on the banks of the River Mersey and was Historic counties of England, historically part of Lancashire. It is east o ...

, their

cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...

on 24 August at

Uttoxeter Uttoxeter ( , ) is a market town and civil parish in the East Staffordshire borough of Staffordshire, England. It is near to the Derbyshire county border. The town is from Burton upon Trent via the A50 and the A38, from Stafford via the A51 ...

. In the aftermath of the war Charles was beheaded on 30 January 1649 and England became a republic on 19 May.

Background

Charles I, king of Scotland and England in a personal union, went to war with his Scottish subjects in the

Bishops' Wars The Bishops' Wars were two separate conflicts fought in 1639 and 1640 between Scotland and England, with Scottish Royalists allied to England. They were the first of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which also include the First and Second En ...

of 1639 and 1640. Charles was unsuccessful and the settlement with his

Scottish Parliament The Scottish Parliament ( ; ) is the Devolution in the United Kingdom, devolved, unicameral legislature of Scotland. It is located in the Holyrood, Edinburgh, Holyrood area of Edinburgh, and is frequently referred to by the metonym 'Holyrood'. ...

in 1641 severely limited his powers. After years of rising tensions the relationship between Charles and his

English Parliament The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the 13th century until 1707 when it was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain. Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised th ...

also broke down, starting the

in 1642. In England, Charles's supporters, the Royalists, were opposed by the combined forces of the Parliamentarians and the Scots. In 1643 the latter pair formed an alliance bound by the

Solemn League and Covenant The Solemn League and Covenant was an agreement between the Scottish Covenanters and the leaders of the English Parliamentarians in 1643 during the First English Civil War, a theatre of conflict in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. On 17 August ...

. After four years of war the Royalists were defeated and Charles surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646. The Scots agreed with the English Parliament on a peace settlement which the Scots spent months trying to persuade Charles to agree to, but he refused. The Scots eventually handed Charles over to the English Parliamentary forces on 3 February 1647 in exchange for a financial settlement and left England. Charles engaged in separate negotiations with different factions, eventually signing an agreement known as the Engagement, which had been thrashed out with the Scottish delegation, on 26 December 1647. Charles agreed to confirm the Solemn League and Covenant by act of parliament in both kingdoms in return for the Scots' assistance in enforcing his claim to the English throne. When the Scottish delegation returned to

Edinburgh Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...

with the Engagement, the Scots were bitterly divided on whether to

ratify Ratification is a principal's legal confirmation of an act of its agent. In international law, ratification is the process by which a state declares its consent to be bound to a treaty. In the case of bilateral treaties, ratification is usuall ...

its terms. After a protracted political struggle those in favour of it, known as the Engagers, gained a majority in the Scottish Parliament and on 11 April 1648 repudiated the 1643 treaty with the Parliamentarians.

War

The coalition of interests on the Parliamentarian side during the first war fractured in 1647. In early 1648 there were uprisings in support of the Royalist cause in England and Wales and mutinies by Parliamentarian garrisons, marking the start of the

. The most reliable military force the Parliamentarian leaders had at their disposal was the

. This had been split into garrisons across the country; its commander, Sir

Thomas Fairfax Sir Thomas Fairfax (17 January 1612 – 12 November 1671) was an English army officer and politician who commanded the New Model Army from 1645 to 1650 during the English Civil War. Because of his dark hair, he was known as "Black Tom" to his l ...

, based in London, put down the revolt in

Kent Kent is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South East England. It is bordered by Essex across the Thames Estuary to the north, the Strait of Dover to the south-east, East Sussex to the south-west, Surrey to the west, and Gr ...

on 1 June, then moved into

Essex Essex ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is bordered by Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, the North Sea to the east, Kent across the Thames Estuary to the ...

and began an eleven-week

siege of Colchester The siege of Colchester occurred in the summer of 1648 when the Second English Civil War reignited in several areas of Britain. Colchester found itself in the thick of the unrest when a Cavalier, Royalist army on its way through East Angli ...

. In south Wales the Parliamentarians faced mutinous garrisons in

Chepstow Chepstow () is a town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, adjoining the border with Gloucestershire, England. It is located on the tidal River Wye, about above its confluence with the River Severn, and adjoining the western end of the ...

Tenby Tenby () is a seaside town and community (Wales), community in the county of Pembrokeshire, Wales. It lies within Carmarthen Bay. Notable features include of sandy beaches and the Pembrokeshire Coast Path, the 13th-century Tenby Town Walls, me ...

and Pembroke Castle as well as Royalist uprisings. The Scots raised an army under the command of the

Duke of Hamilton Duke of Hamilton is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, created in April 1643. It is the senior dukedom in that peerage (except for the Duke of Rothesay, Dukedom of Rothesay held by the sovereign's eldest son), and as such its holder is the pr ...

to send into England to fight on behalf of the King. With rebellion breaking out in England and Wales and the Scottish army marching for the border, the future of Britain hung in the balance, in the view of the modern historian Ian Gentles. The summer of 1648 was extremely wet and stormy, hampering both sides. Major General John Lambert was in charge of Parliamentarian forces in the north of England and his men harassed the Royalist force around

, gathered information and besieged

Pontefract Castle Pontefract (or Pomfret) Castle is a castle ruin in the town of Pontefract, in West Yorkshire, England. King Richard II of England, Richard II is thought to have died there. It was the site of a series of famous sieges during the 17th-cent ...

from early June. Marmaduke Langdale, who had fought as a cavalry commander in the First Civil War, raised 4,000 English Royalists in northern England and covered the arrival of Hamilton's army. When

Oliver Cromwell arrived in south Wales on 11 May with 5,000 men of the New Model Army, he found the local Parliamentarian forces regaining control. Cromwell undertook the Siege of Pembroke castle in the far south west on 31 May, hampered by a lack of

artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

. As the siege progressed and the restiveness of the local populace declined, Cromwell despatched cavalry regiments one at a time to march north and reinforce Lambert. Siege guns arrived on 1 July and the castle, the last Royalist stronghold in South Wales, surrendered on 11 July. Cromwell mopped up and his infantry was marching within a week. Rather than moving directly towards the Scottish army they left Wales at

Gloucester Gloucester ( ) is a cathedral city, non-metropolitan district and the county town of Gloucestershire in the South West England, South West of England. Gloucester lies on the River Severn, between the Cotswolds to the east and the Forest of Dean ...

and then headed north east through

Warwick Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon, Warwickshire, River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined wit ...

and

Leicester Leicester ( ) is a city status in the United Kingdom, city, Unitary authorities of England, unitary authority area, and the county town of Leicestershire in the East Midlands of England. It is the largest city in the East Midlands with a popula ...

before turning north towards

. Cromwell did this to place his force on the direct route from Carlisle to London and to ensure as far as he could that he would be able to combine with Lambert's detachment.

Invasion

Hamilton crossed into England on 8 July and joined Langdale's force at Carlisle the next day. After some fierce skirmishing around Appleby, Lambert's smaller Parliamentarian force withdrew, concentrating around

Barnard Castle Barnard Castle (, ) is a market town on the north bank of the River Tees, in County Durham, England. The town is named after and built around a medieval castle ruin. The town's Bowes Museum has an 18th-century Silver Swan automaton exhibit ...

, to the east of the

. Over the following three weeks the Scots besieged and captured Appleby Castle, giving the impression that they planned to move into Yorkshire. They then moved south to Hornby, with Langdale's 4,000 men acting as an advance guard and pushing as far as Settle by 9 August, suggesting that they would continue south to the west of the Pennines. Lambert, despite being steadily reinforced, acted on Cromwell's orders and stood on the defensive; the historian. Peter Reese. describes his performance during this period as brilliant. On 2 August he took his corps south and joined with Cromwell and his accompanying infantry at

Wetherby Wetherby ( ) is a market town and civil parishes in England, civil parish in the City of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. It is close to West Yorkshire county's border with North Yorkshire and lies approximately from Leeds city centre, from ...

on 12 August. These infantry had marched in thirteen days. Cromwell took command of the combined force. The Scots had sent a force to

Ulster Ulster (; or ; or ''Ulster'') is one of the four traditional or historic provinces of Ireland, Irish provinces. It is made up of nine Counties of Ireland, counties: six of these constitute Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kingdom); t ...

in 1642 to intervene in the

Irish Confederate Wars The Irish Confederate Wars, took place from 1641 to 1653. It was the Irish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a series of civil wars in Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland, Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, all then ...

. It was recalled to join the invasion of England. Some of the vessels ferrying the men of this corps back to Scotland were intercepted by the Parliamentarian navy; 300 men of one regiment are known to have been captured. How many mustered for the invasion is unclear but it was probably around 2,800all of them experienced fighting men. Their effectiveness was reduced because their commander, Major General George Munro, refused to accept any subordination to Hamilton. This led to Munro's corps manoeuvring as an independent force and being well to the north of Hamilton's main army when the Parliamentarians attacked. On 13 August, Cromwell directed his army westward, leaving his artillery at Wetherby to enable his army to advance more rapidly. He assumed that his opponent would continue south down the English west coast, rather than head directly for London via Upper

Ribblesdale Ribblesdale is one of the Yorkshire Dales in England. It is the Dale (landform), dale or upper valley of the River Ribble in North Yorkshire. Towns and villages in Ribblesdale (downstream, from north to south) include Selside, North Yorkshire, ...

and Craven. It was not until the next day that a Royalist

council of war A council of war

Opposing forces

Infantry

Infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...

formations, equipment and tactics were similar in the armies. The basic tactical formation was the

regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation. In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...

, which varied greatly in size. An infantry regiment was usually made up of 10

companies A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether natural, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specifi ...

and typically had a nominal strength of 800 or 1,000 men that was rarely met. Each was composed of

musketeer A musketeer ( ) was a type of soldier equipped with a musket. Musketeers were an important part of early modern warfare, particularly in Europe, as they normally comprised the majority of their infantry. The musketeer was a precursor to the rifl ...

s and pikemen. Musketeers were armed with muskets possessing barrels and, mostly,

matchlock A matchlock or firelock is a historical type of firearm wherein the gunpowder is ignited by a burning piece of flammable cord or twine that is in contact with the gunpowder through a mechanism that the musketeer activates by pulling a lever or Tri ...

firing mechanisms. These relied on the glowing end of a length of

slow match Slow match, also called match cord, is the slow-burning cord or twine fuse used by early gunpowder musketeers, artillerymen, and soldiers to ignite matchlock muskets, cannons, shells, and petards. Slow matches were most suitable for use ar ...

, thin cord soaked in

saltpetre Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with a sharp, salty, bitter taste and the chemical formula . It is a potassium salt of nitric acid. This salt consists of potassium cations and nitrate anions , and is therefore an alkali metal nitrate ...

, igniting the weapon's priming powder when the trigger was pulled. Keeping the slow match burning resulted in the consumption of a vast amount but dowsing it rendered the musket useless. Balancing combat readiness against logistical capability called for fine judgement from a regiment's officers. These muskets were reliable and robust weapons, but their effectiveness was severely reduced in poor weather. Persistent rain during the battle of Preston may account for the frequent contemporary references to hand-to-hand fighting and the use of pikes. A few musketeers on each side were equipped with the more reliable

flintlock Flintlock is a general term for any firearm that uses a flint-striking lock (firearm), ignition mechanism, the first of which appeared in Western Europe in the early 16th century. The term may also apply to a particular form of the mechanism its ...

muskets. In 1648 musket tactics were changing from firing one rank at a time so as to maintain a steady fire, to the entire unit discharging a volley for shock effect. A well-trained musketeer took approximately 40 seconds to reload and would carry ten rounds of ammunition. Pikemen were equipped with pikes: long wooden shafts tipped with steel points. Pikes as issued were normally long, but on the march they were commonly cut down to a more wieldy or so. The pikemen carried basic swords and typically wore steel

helmet A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head. More specifically, a helmet complements the skull in protecting the human brain. Ceremonial or symbolic helmets (e.g., a policeman's helmet in the United Kingdom) without protecti ...

s but no other armour; in some regiments a few pikemen, usually those in the front rank, would have also worn body armour. Military manuals of the time suggested a ratio of two musketeers per pikeman but in practice commanders usually attempted to maximise the number of musketeers and a higher ratio was the rule. Re-enactment - The Siege of Bolingbroke Castle - geograph

Re-enactment - The Siege of Bolingbroke Castle - geograph

Both armies organised their infantry regiments into

brigade A brigade is a major tactical military unit, military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute ...

s of three regiments each, which doctrine suggested be deployed two regiments abreast, with the third behind as a reserve. The men in each unit would form four or five ranks and in a relatively loose formation, with about of frontage per file; so an infantry regiment of 600 might form 120 men wide and 5 deep, giving it a frontage of and a depth of . The pikemen would be placed in the centre of a formation, in a "stand", with the musketeers on each side. The usual tactic against infantry was for the musketeers to fire on their opponents and once it was thought they had been sufficiently weakened or demoralised the stand of pikemen would advance, attempting to break through the enemy centre. This was known as a "push of the pike". The musketeers would also advance, engaging the enemy with their musket butts, which were steel-plated for this purpose and attempt to envelop the opposing formation. Against cavalry, doctrine called for infantry units to tighten the spacing between their files to approximately per man and to advance steadily. To be effective against infantry, cavalry needed to break into their formation, and if the men were close together, this was not possible. It was accepted that so long as the morale of the infantry held, cavalry could do little against the front of such a formation. The flanks and rear were increasingly vulnerable when the infantry packed more closely together, as this made manoeuvring or turning the unit more difficult.

Cavalry

Most of the Parliamentarian

were mounted on large horses (for the time). The cavalrymen all wore metal lobster-tailed pot helmets which protected the head and, usually, the neck, cheeks and, to an extent, face; and thigh-length boots. Body armour was worn by most cavalry and consisted of a

cuirass A cuirass ( ; ; ) is a piece of armour that covers the torso, formed of one or more pieces of metal or other rigid material. The term probably originates from the original material, leather, from the Old French word and the Latin word . The us ...

metal chest and back plates) although many relied on just a jacket of thick uncured leather. They were each armed with two pistols and a sword, the pistols were to long and had a very limited effective range. Most cavalry pistols had flintlock firing mechanisms, which were more reliable in damp or windy weather than matchlock mechanisms. Flintlocks were more expensive than matchlocks and were usually reserved for the cavalry, who found igniting and using the slow match while controlling a horse inconvenient. The swords were straight, and effective at cutting and thrusting. The Royalist cavalry were similarly equipped, with helmets, pistols, swords and body armour, although many of the Scots bore

lance The English term lance is derived, via Middle English '' launce'' and Old French '' lance'', from the Latin '' lancea'', a generic term meaning a wikt:lancea#Noun">lancea'', a generic term meaning a spear">wikt:lancea#Noun">lancea'', a generi ...

s rather than pistols. Scottish horses were smaller and lighter than their English equivalents; this gave them greater manoeuvrability but put them at a disadvantage in a face-to-face confrontation. The Scottish cavalry were well mounted, but many were inexperienced and ill-disciplined. Parliamentarian cavalry tactics were intended to use their strengths. They adopted a tight formation, with their riders' legs interlocked, and to maintain it would advance no faster than a trot. They would discharge their pistols at very short range and upon coming into contact attempt to use the sheer weight of their mounts and the mass of their formation to force back their opponents and burst through their ranks. Royalist cavalry were more likely to charge at a faster pace and in a looser formation. Both armies contained

dragoon Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat wi ...

s. These had originated as

mounted infantry Mounted infantry were infantry who rode horses instead of marching. Unlike cavalry, mounted infantry dismounted to fight on foot. The original dragoons were essentially mounted infantry. According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Editio ...

, using horses to increase their operational mobility and dismounting to fight with pikes or muskets. By 1648 they had largely become specialist mounted troops; none carried pikes. The Parliamentarian dragoons were exchanging their muskets for

carbine A carbine ( or ) is a long gun that has a barrel shortened from its original length. Most modern carbines are rifles that are compact versions of a longer rifle or are rifles chambered for less powerful cartridges. The smaller size and ligh ...

s (shorter-barrelled versions of muskets, more wieldy for carrying on, or even firing from, horseback) or occasionally, pistols. Scottish dragoons were also partway through this change and carried matchlock muskets and cavalry swords. Dragoons usually acted as scouts or formed a

rearguard A rearguard or rear security is a part of a military force that protects it from attack from the rear, either during an advance or Withdrawal (military), withdrawal. The term can also be used to describe forces protecting lines, such as Line of c ...

Artillery

The Parliamentarian forces involved in the battle possessed no artillery, having left it at Wetherby. The Royalist army's

artillery train In military contexts, a train is the military logistics, logistical transport elements accompanying a military force. Often called a supply train or baggage train, it has the job of providing materiel for their associated combat forces when in th ...

was with Munro's corps, and so took no part in the battle. Several Scottish infantry regiments had lightweight, small-calibre cannon to supplement the fire of their musketeers, for a total of about 20 pieces. These small pieces were particularly effective against cavalry.

Numbers

According to Bull and Seed, the force from the New Model Army commanded by Cromwell consisted of about 2,900 infantry and 2,300 cavalry. The Northern Association Army under Lambert added some 800 infantry and 900–1,000 cavalry. The numbers of Lancashire Militia available are less certain but have been estimated at 1,600 infantry and 500 cavalry. This gives an estimated Parliamentarian strength at Preston of about 9,000 men, 5,300 infantry and 3,700 cavalry. Further forces totalling around 2,100 infantry were within two days' march of Preston on the day of battle and some were involved in the post-battle mopping up. Wanklyn broadly agrees, estimating that Cromwell had 8,000–9,000 men available to him as a field force; Richard Brooks follows Cromwell's figures and specifies 8,600. Most of these men were seasoned troops, well trained and experienced, and the militia were to match the veterans when the fighting started. The main Scottish army under Hamilton is difficult to enumerate as nearly all the Scottish units were under strength, some seriously so; it contained about 12,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry, not all of whom took part in the battle. The force under Munro is even less clear, but it probably consisted of about 1,800 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, none of whom fought at Preston. The English Royalist component under Langdale and Philip Musgrave added perhaps 4,500 infantry and 1,200 cavalry, many ill-armed and inadequately trained. This gave a total of roughly 24,000 men available to Hamilton: 18,300 infantry and 5,700 cavalry. Though many of the Scots were experienced soldiers, they were unenthusiastic about another round of warfare and there had been difficulty raising troops. Some regiments had barely half their establishment and more than half were recruits, lacking experience and training. A contemporary exaggerated that "not a fifth man could handle a pike".

Battle

Closing to contact

On the morning of 17 August, the Parliamentarian army was largely concentrated in the area of the Hodder bridge over the River Ribble, east of Preston and the road being taken by the Royalists. The Royalists had failed to concentrate their forces. Munro's corps and the Scottish artillery were at Kirkby Lonsdale, north of Preston, waiting for an ammunition train expected from Scotland, before following on. The bulk of the Scottish cavalry and their commander the Earl of Middleton were up to south of their infantry; the balance were closer to their main body. All of the cavalry had dispersed to forage. The separation of Munro's men and the scattering of the cavalry were militarily unwise. The Scottish infantry, the largest contingent of the Royalist force, was just to the north of Preston. Most of Langdale's corps, perhaps 4,000 men, were north east of Preston, falling back ahead of the Parliamentarian vanguard. On 17 August Hamilton intended to get the whole of his army across the bridge over the Ribble immediately south of Preston and on the march to

and then

Manchester Manchester () is a city and the metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England. It had an estimated population of in . Greater Manchester is the third-most populous metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2.92&nbs ...

. Before the first unit had crossed, Langdale rode up to inform him that the whole of Cromwell's force was advancing from the north east and was already engaging his command. Hamilton dismissed this report as Langdale exaggerating another probe by Lambert; he ordered the infantry to commence crossing the bridge, but sent a small unit of Scottish cavalry to assist Langdale. These cavalry were equipped with lances and so were not well suited to the small fields and close terrain in which they were deployed. The Parliamentarian advance guard, of either 600 or 900 men, was pushing back Langdale's outlying troops in a confused running battle. Langdale had about 3,000 infantry and 700 cavalry in the vicinity of Preston, although there is no record of his cavalry being engaged in any fighting on 17 August. All or most of his infantry took up defensive positions about north west of Preston. His infantry occupied a good defensive position immediately south west of Ribbleton Moor with their

skirmisher Skirmishers are light infantry or light cavalry soldiers deployed as a vanguard, flank guard or rearguard to screen a tactical position or a larger body of friendly troops from enemy advances. They may be deployed in a skirmish line, an irre ...

s protected in part by a deeply cut brook to their front. The line ran north west to south east with the main force behind hedges. The road the Parliamentarians were advancing along ran at a right angle through the centre of the Royalist line. This position halted the advance force of Parliamentarians a little before noon. The 7,000 or so Parliamentarians in their main body caught up and began deploying for battle, while skirmishing vigorously in heavy rain. As the pressure from the Parliamentarian army built, the Royalist skirmishers fell back to join the main line. Langdale's aim was to force the Parliamentarian army to spend several hours deploying into battle formation and so allow the Scots to his rear to reinforce him. Langdale stretched his line as far as the number of troops would permit, about three-quarters of a mile (1 km) to avoid being outflanked. His defensive position was thin and had little depth. The terrain was boggy and broken up by many hedges, even the roads and tracks were difficult going. Cromwell complained that the area was completely unsuitable for cavalry.

Langdale's stand

The nearest part of the main contingent of the Royalist army was to the west of Langdale's corps. Hamilton could hear the increasing volume of musket and pistol fire, but still believed that Langdale's force was only facing a strong probe and ordered the Scottish infantry to continue crossing the Ribble. In the early afternoon Cromwell opened the battle proper by charging the cavalry of the advance guard down the road, hoping to split Langdale's line. The road was blocked just behind the front line by a force of pikemen who halted the Parliamentarian charge, the by-passed musketeers on either side of the road fired into the sides of the stalled cavalry formation. The Scottish lancers were committed and they threw the Parliamentarians back. All five infantry regiments of the New Model Army present were deployed in the front line, with three regiments attacking to the right of the road and two to the left. They comprised about 3,500 men in total. Two fresh cavalry regiments attempted to position themselves for another rush along the road, but they found the going difficult as the road was jammed with wounded horses; they were driven back by musket fire. For over an hour the battle stalled on the line of hedgerows occupied by Langdale's infantry amidst fierce fighting, the Parliamentarians suffering heavy casualties. In his account of this part of the battle Cromwell described the Royalists as putting up "a very stiff and sturdy resistance". The fighting in the hedgerow-enclosed fields frequently came down to a "push of pike". The New Model Army infantry were accustomed to fighting in close terrain, but the inexperienced Royalist musketeers frequently fired harmlessly high. The Royalist forces started to be steadily forced back, Langdale always attempting to ensure that they had a clear line of retreat to the Ribble bridge. The two Parliamentary regiments on the left of their line were in difficulties and making little progress. One of the two was from Lambert's command and he joined the front rank on foot to try and encourage them forward. After a while he gave orders for a brigade of Lancashire militia, of about 1,600 men, which was being held in reserve, to move forward to support the attack on the left. At least a large part and possibly all of the five under-strength regiments making up this brigade advanced to the left of the two, much stronger, Parliamentary regiments already engaged. As the Royalist line did not extend all the way to the Ribble, and as unengaged Royalists had been sucked into the earlier fighting, the Lancashire troops found no opponents in front of them. Instead of turning to take the outflanked Royalists in the rear the Parliamentarians continued west along a boggy track called Watery Lane, through a marsh known as Fishwick Bottoms, heading for the bridge over the Ribble. Hamilton continued to ignore the fighting to the east and the Scottish infantry continued to move away from the fighting and cross Preston Bridge. Some modern historians have suggested that this was a sensible attempt to take up a defensive position south of the Ribble until the Royalist cavalry could re-join the infantry. They consider that committing all of their infantry to battle on the relatively open ground north of the river with almost no cavalry support would have seemed most unwise to the Royalist commanders. Of the three New Model Army regiments advancing on the Parliamentarian right, only the one nearest the road was able to get to grips with the Royalist infantry opposing them; possibly the other two were slowed by the difficulties of the terrain. Two parliamentary cavalry regimentseach up to 480 men strongoperating on their right were able to make better, if slow, progress. They worked their way, unopposed, around the Royalist left. By this time the Scots had put all their troops bar two infantry brigades and a cavalry rearguard of unknown strength over the Ribble. Seeing the troopers of the rearguard, the Parliamentarians attacked. The Scottish cavalry initially held their position and withstood two charges from the Parliamentarians. Then they broke and fled, closely pursued by their opponents. The commanders of the well-trained New Model Army cavalry kept their men well in hand, pulling them up when they were in danger of becoming embroiled with the Scottish infantry. The cavalry reformed and, backtracking, fell upon the left flank and rear of Langdale's infantry. Having been fiercely attacked from the front for several hours, with both flanks turned, cut off from possible retreat to the Ribble Bridge, and with cavalry now attacking their rear, Langdale's command fell apart. As Langdale's men lost heart, two more Parliamentarian cavalry regiments renewed the attack down the road; they charged straight through the Royalist line, which fled. Many of the English Royalists surrendered or were cut down. The rest fled, some reached Preston, but the fight had gone out of them and the town was cleared and captured by two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry. The cavalry element of Langdale's force had not been engaged, but when their infantry were defeated they retreated north towards Kirkby Lonsdale with the survivors of the Scottish rearguard and the lance-armed cavalry who had been seconded to Langdale. Two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry pursued them. When Langdale's position was being overrun, Hamilton was near Preston with his staff, trying to pull together the Royalist cavalry in the area. The two Scottish infantry brigades north of the Ribble were ordered to the bridge to defend it, but never arrived, either surrendered en masse or being swept away in the rout and then taken prisoner. As Parliamentarian cavalry charged down Church Street, quelling resistance in Preston, Hamilton's group made for a ford across the river. Fighting off three attacks by Parliamentarian cavalry they eventually swam their horses to the south bank. Langdale extricated himself from the ruin of his command and joined them at some point.

Fight for the bridge

Charles Cattermole - The Battle of Preston and Walton August 17th 1648 1877

Parliamentarian musketeers from the Lancastrian brigade took up positions on the

escarpment An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as a result of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas having different elevations. Due to the similarity, the term '' scarp'' may mistakenly be incorrectly used inte ...

north of the Ribble at Frenchwood, from which their fire could dominate access to Preston Bridge on the north and make its southern approaches dangerous. The Royalists defending the northern approach to the bridge had no cover and suffered casualties while unable to reply. Attempts to send reinforcements across the bridge from the south were hampered by the heavy Parliamentarian fire. Another Parliamentarian infantry regiment arrived to add to the musket fire targeting the Royalist bridgehead and the Lancastrian brigade launched an attack on it. It took two hours of furious fighting before their pikemen were able to defeat the Scottish defenders and then push their way across the bridge. About south of the Ribble was a smaller river, the

Darwen Darwen is a market town and civil parish in the Blackburn with Darwen borough in Lancashire, England. The residents of the town are known as "Darreners". The A666 road, A666 road passes through Darwen towards Blackburn to the north, Bolton to ...

, crossed by a bridge similar to but smaller than Preston Bridge. Immediately to the south of that was a steep rise to Walton Hill. The commander of the Scottish infantry, General William Baillie, concentrated his remaining forces on the hill, while the Parliamentarians pursuing the Royalists fleeing from Preston Bridge captured the Darwen bridge. Night was falling and there was a pause in the fighting: the Royalists were reeling from the unexpected disaster which had struck them, the Parliamentarians were scattered over the field and there were thousands of Royalist prisoners to deal with. The surviving Royalist forces, although dispersed, were still at least as numerous as the Parliamentarian army. Cromwell, fearful of a Scottish counterattack, had his men line the north bank of the Ribble overnight. The same evening he wrote in a letter that the Royalists were broken and had only been saved from destruction by nightfall. A Royalist council of war decided that the surviving units should make their way south immediately, to be well away from Cromwell's force by morning and to link up with their main force of cavalry at Wigan. To move as rapidly and stealthily as possible the Scots abandoned their baggage and ammunition trains, only taking with them what each man could carry. The baggage, equipment, artillery and ammunition left behind was ordered to be destroyed once the march was well under way, but it was not and was captured before daylight.

Retreat

The Royalist baggage was discovered and it became clear that the Scots were making off, relying on the dark and the heavy rain to mask their march. Cromwell was alerted and pulled together a force of cavalry and sent them across the bridge onto the road south. Despite their exhaustion, within they had closed with the few cavalry the Scots were using as a rearguard. The whole of the mounted contingent of the New Model Armyless the two cavalry regiments following Langdale, but reinforced by some Lancashire troopswas now in pursuit, some 2,500 cavalry and dragoons. Their advance guard harried the Scottish cavalry, determined to break through them to force the Royalist infantry to stand and fight. The Scottish cavalry under Middleton, recalled from Wigan, took up a position to hold off the Parliamentarian pursuit. Throughout 18 August the Parliamentarians pressed so aggressively that in one skirmish the commander of their advance guard was killed. All of the infantry of the New Model Army were following on, a further 2,900 men. The Parliamentarians were still outnumbered by the Scots, who were approximately 7,000 strong. Local militia had been left in charge of Preston and the prisoners. By nightfall both sides were exhausted. The Scots entered Wigan, thoroughly plundered it and marched on through the night. Some men had not eaten nor slept for two nights, cavalrymen fell asleep in their saddles, the rain continued.

Battle of Winwick

On 19 August, some south of Wigan, the Scots halted between the villages of Newton and Winwick at a naturally strong defensive position. The Scots numbered about 7,000 men, while the Parliamentarians were pursuing with nearly all of the New Model Army, supplemented by some local troops: approximately 2,500 cavalry and dragoons and 2,900 infantry for a total of some 5,400–5,500 men. The Parliamentarian horses were exhausted and unable to manage more than a walk. The Parliamentarian pursuers rode up the road and in the words of one of their number,

Captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...

John Hodgson, the Scots "snaffled our forlorn dvance guard and put them to retreat". Once Parliamentarian infantry arrived they attempted to storm the Scottish positions but were held up. Fierce fighting continued for several hours, with repeated Parliamentarian charges and prolonged close quarter fighting between the opposing pike formations with the Parliamentarians unable to dislodge the Scots. The Parliamentarian infantry fell back. The Parliamentarian cavalry pinned the Scots in placewho by now had run out of dry gunpowderwhile their infantry took a circuitous route, taking care to stay out of sight behind woods and in dead ground, and emerged on the flank and rear of the Scots. The sight of the enemy appearing unexpectedly on their flank was too much for the exhausted Scots, who broke and fled. A large number routed towards Winwick and the Parliamentarian cavalry followed, cutting down many men. The Scots discarded their weapons and crammed into the village church, where they were taken prisoner. Seeing that the battle was lost, the Scottish cavalry withdrew in the direction of

, to the south. The majority of the Scottish infantry, about 2,700 men, followed them, hard pressed by the Parliamentarians. When the remaining Scottish infantry, fewer than 2,600 men, reached Warrington late on 19 August they discovered that their cavalry and their commander had abandoned them. Hamilton left a message saying they would "preserve themselves for a better time" and ordering the infantry to surrender on the best terms they could get. The commander of the infantry, Lieutenant General Baillie, was at such a loss that he turned to his staff and "beseeched any that would to shoot him through the head". Warrington bridge was barricaded and terms of surrender were sought. Cromwell took them prisoner, sparing their lives and their immediate personal possessions. Approximately 1,300 mounted Scots headed south. Discipline collapsed, troopers, even officers, deserted; one trooper shot his

sergeant Sergeant (Sgt) is a Military rank, rank in use by the armed forces of many countries. It is also a police rank in some police services. The alternative spelling, ''serjeant'', is used in The Rifles and in other units that draw their heritage f ...

and was himself executed. Local militia repeatedly attacked, one group capturing the commander of the Scottish cavalry. The weather continued to be wet and stormy. At

on 24 August a handful of the senior officers left, some eventually made their way to safety. Hamilton was too sick to move and surrendered on terms to the pursuing Parliamentarian pursuit, the prisoners were promised their lives and their clothes, they were not to be beaten, the sick and wounded would be treated locally and Hamilton was allowed six servants.

Casualties

Modern historians accept that approximately 1,000 Royalists were killed at Preston and 4,000 taken prisoner. During the retreat from Preston, at Winwick and its aftermath, approximately 1,000 Royalists are believed to have died and 7,000–8,000 to have been captured, contemporary estimates vary widely. Neither contemporary nor modern estimates agree on the total numbers. Those Scottish prisoners who had served voluntarily, as opposed to being conscripted, were sold as slaves, either to work the land in the Americas or as

galley slave A galley slave was a slave rowing in a galley, either a Convict, convicted criminal sentenced to work at the oar (''French language, French'': galérien), or a kind of human chattel, sometimes a prisoner of war, assigned to the duty of rowing. ...

s to

Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...

. Hamilton was beheaded for treason in March 1649. The English Parliament announced that their losses during the campaign had been 100 or less killed. Cromwell declined to quantify the loss, but did speak of "many" wounded. The Parliamentary figure of 100 dead is widely used by modern historians but Bull and Seed are sceptical and estimate that in excess of 500 were killed or wounded.

Aftermath

The execution of King Charles I from NPG

After Winwick, Cromwell turned north. More than 1,100 Royalists commanded by Musgrave were trapped at Appleby and surrendered on generous terms. Munro withdrew his corps to Scotland with little fighting; from there it was ordered back to Ireland. Preston and Winwick were the last battles of the Second English Civil War; Colchester surrendered to Fairfax on 27 August 1648. The destruction of the Engager army led to further political upheaval in Scotland and the faction opposed to the Engagement was able to gain control of the government, with the assistance of a group of English Parliamentarian cavalry led by Cromwell. Exasperated by the duplicity of Charles I and by the English Parliament's refusal to stop negotiating with him and accept the demands of the New Model Army, the Army purged Parliament and established the

Rump Parliament The Rump Parliament describes the members of the Long Parliament who remained in session after Colonel Thomas Pride, on 6 December 1648, commanded his soldiers to Pride's Purge, purge the House of Commons of those Members of Parliament, members ...

, which appointed a

High Court of Justice The High Court of Justice in London, known properly as His Majesty's High Court of Justice in England, together with the Court of Appeal (England and Wales), Court of Appeal and the Crown Court, are the Courts of England and Wales, Senior Cour ...

to try Charles I for treason against the English people. He was convicted and on 30 January 1649 beheaded. On 19 May, with the establishment of the

Commonwealth of England The Commonwealth of England was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when Kingdom of England, England and Wales, later along with Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland and Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, were governed as a republi ...

, the country became a

republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...

. The Scottish Parliament, which had not been consulted before the King's execution, declared his son Charles II, King of Britain and set about recruiting rapidly an army to support him. The leaders of the English Commonwealth felt threatened by the Scots assembling another army and the New Model Army, led by Cromwell, invaded Scotland on 22 July. After 14 months of hard fighting, Scotland was largely subjugated and a Scottish counter-invasion was crushed at the

battle of Worcester The Battle of Worcester took place on 3 September 1651 in and around the city of Worcester, England and was the last major battle of the 1642 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. A Parliamentarian army of around 28,000 under Oliver Cromwell def ...

. The defeated Scottish government was dissolved and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth. After in-fighting between factions in the English Parliament and the army, Cromwell ruled over the Commonwealth as

Lord Protector Lord Protector (plural: ''Lords Protector'') is a title that has been used in British constitutional law for the head of state. It was also a particular title for the British heads of state in respect to the established church. It was sometime ...

from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. On 3 February 1660 the dominant army faction, under Lieutenant General George Monck, called new parliamentary elections. These resulted in the Convention Parliament which on 8 May 1660 declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I. Charles II returned from exile and was crowned king of England on 23 April 1661.

Notes, citations and sources

Notes

Citations

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control Second English Civil War Oliver Cromwell 1648 in England 1648 in Scotland Preston 1648 Preston (1648) Preston (1648) History of Preston Preston 1648 17th century in Lancashire Scottish invasions of England Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms