Bangka Language

Bangka or Bangka Malay (''bahase Bangka'' or ''base Bangka'', Belinyu dialect: ''baso Bangka'', Jawi: بهاس بڠك), is a Malayic language spoken in Indonesia, specifically on the island of Bangka in the Bangka Belitung Islands of Sumatra. It is primarily spoken by the native Malay people of Bangka, as well as by immigrants from other parts of Indonesia and the Bangka Chinese, who use it as their second language in addition to their native Hakka. Bangka Malay is spoken exclusively on the island of Bangka, although it is related to Palembang Malay and Belitung Malay spoken on neighboring islands. There are five different dialects of Bangka Malay: the Pangkalpinang dialect, Mentok dialect, Belinyu dialect, Sungailiat dialect, and Toboali dialect. Each of these dialects has its own subdialects. Additionally, the Bangka Chinese community speaks their own dialect of Bangka Malay, which is influenced by Hakka. The differences between each of these dialects are mostly lies in their phonology and morphology, except for the Bangka Cina dialect, which also has slight differences in vocabulary.

In Bangka, Bangka Malay serves as the ''lingua franca'' among the island's diverse ethnic groups. It has been influenced by Palembang Malay, owing to Bangka's historical association with the Palembang Sultanate, as well as by Hakka, introduced by Chinese migrants, and standard Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia. Bangka Malay exhibits notable phonological and lexical differences from standard Indonesian and other Malay dialects, while its morphological structures generally remain identical, facilitating mutual intelligibility. It incorporates distinctive vocabulary that distinguishes it from both standard Indonesian and other dialects.

Classification

Bangka Malay is a Malayic language. Speakers of Malayic language are spread from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of the Philippines. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Taiwan, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.

Bangka Malay is closely related to other Malay dialects like Palembang Malay and Belitung Malay spoken on nearby islands, but closer to Loncong Malay spoken by nomadic sea gypsies from Belitung. However, Bangka Malay has its own distinct features in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that set it apart from standard Indonesian and other Malay varieties.

Geographic distribution and usage

Bangka Malay is exclusively spoken on Bangka and its surrounding islands, as well as by the Bangka diaspora living in other parts of Indonesia. However, Bangka Malay is not the only language spoken on the island. The Chinese community in Bangka, who migrated from Guangdong due to the booming tin mining industry in the 19th century, primarily speak Hakka or Mandarin, though many also speak Bangka Malay as a second language. On the other hand, the Orang Laut, sea nomads inhabiting the coastal regions of Bangka and the surrounding islands, speak a distinct variety of Malay known as Loncong or Sekak. Additionally, due to transmigration policies enacted during the Dutch colonial era and continuing through the New Order, many immigrants from Java and other parts of Indonesia have settled in Bangka, bringing their own languages and cultures with them.

Like other regional languages in Indonesia, Bangka Malay serves as an important and effective means of communication, especially within family settings, among peers, and in informal gatherings. In formal settings such as wedding parties, ceremonies, public meetings, and sermons in mosques or prayer rooms, people in Bangka almost always use Indonesian, sometimes mixed with Bangka Malay. Indonesian is also used in government offices, schools, and official ceremonies. While the language of instruction in schools is Indonesian, in the early grades of elementary school, teachers who are native to Bangka often use Bangka Malay to present lessons. In markets, Bangka Malay is generally used among Bangka people, while code-mixing with other regional languages, such as Palembang Malay, is common among people from outside Bangka. Additionally, with the growing influence of Indonesian as the national language, Bangka people are increasingly code-switching and code-mixing between Bangka Malay and Indonesian.

Bangka Malay holds a prestigious position among its speakers. This becomes apparent when students, university students, or officials returning from assignments outside Bangka converse with local elders or community leaders—they typically opt for Bangka Malay over Indonesian. This choice of language conveys a deeper respect to the elders and community leaders compared to using Indonesian. In fact, speaking Indonesian in such contexts after returning from outside Bangka can be seen as disrespectful.

Dialects

There are five recognized dialects of Bangka Malay, namely Mentok, Belinyu, Sungailiat, Pangkalpinang, and Toboali, each corresponding to administrative units in Bangka. The Mentok dialect is often referred to as the West Bangka dialect, the Belinyu dialect as the North Bangka dialect, and the Toboali dialect as the South Bangka dialect. Meanwhile, the Sungailiat and Pangkalpinang dialects are collectively known as the Central Bangka dialect. In addition, the Chinese community in Bangka speaks a distinct dialect of Bangka Malay infused with Hakka influences. Each of these dialects consists of several sub-dialects, which may differ from one district or village to another. Most of the differences among these dialects primarily lie in phonology and morphology, with vocabulary differences being relatively minor. For example, the Belinyu dialect shows significant phonological influence from Palembang Malay'','' where words that typically end with in standard Malay and Indonesian change to such as ''apa'' 'what' becoming ''apo'', ''kita'' 'we' becoming ''kito'', and ''tiga'' 'three' becoming ''tigo''. The Belinyu dialect also shares similar pronouns with Palembang Malay, such as ''kamek'' 'we (exclusive)'. Additionally, due to its interaction with Palembang Malay, the Belinyu dialect has adopted words from Javanese, including ''wong'' 'people' and ''lanang'' 'male'. Other Bangka Malay dialects, on the other hand, exhibit similarities with the Malay dialect spoken in Riau and Peninsular Malaysia, where words that typically end with change to such as ''apa'' 'what' becoming ''ape'', ''rasa'' 'taste' becoming ''rase'', and so on.

There are some lexical differences among different dialects, but they are limited, and each dialect is mostly mutually intelligible with the others. Below are examples of lexical differences in Bangka Malay across various dialects:

The Bangka Cina dialect, spoken by the Chinese community in Bangka, incorporates loanwords from Hakka. For example, ''amoi'' 'Chinese girls', which is derived from the Hakka word â-moi (阿妹), ''cion'' 'beautiful', which is derived from the Hakka word chiâng (靚), and ''hoklo'' 'rich person', which is derived from the Hakka word ho̍k-ló (學佬).

Phonology

Bangka Malay, like many other regional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Each dialect may also have unique phonological features not found in other dialects. Nevertheless, the phonological system of most Bangka Malay dialects is largely based on standard Indonesian orthography.

Vowels

Like Indonesian, all Bangka Malay dialects have the same number of vowels, possessing six phonemic vowels: i, ə, e, a, o, and u.

Notes:

* In writing, and are both represented as .
* Final in ''Baku'' Malay/Indonesian correspond to in Bangka Malay, so ''Baku'' Malay/Indonesian "to have" corresponds to Bangka Malay .
* ''Baku'' Malay/Indonesian and in closed syllables correspond to lower and in Bangka Malay, so ''Baku'' Malay/Indonesian "sand" and "to place" correspond to Bangka Malay and .
* Unlike almost all other Malayic languages, Bangka preserves Proto-Malayic ''*ə'' in final closed syllables ( , from ''*liher'' "neck"). This feature is also shared by Betawi (and therefore Indonesian slang) and the Palembang Lama dialect, considered within a relic area.

Consonants

All Bangka Malay dialects have 19 consonants, similar to Indonesian and Standard Malay. However, there are some differences in the articulation of certain consonants. For example, in Standard Malay and Indonesian, the consonant "w" is an approximant velar consonant, while in Bangka Malay, "w" is an approximant labial consonant.

Notes:

* In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
** is
** is
** is
** is
** is
** is
* only occurs root-finally.

Diphthongs

In Bangka Malay, there are almost no words that begin with diphthongs. Generally, diphthongs are found at the end of words. In all dialects of the Bangka Malay language, there are three diphthongs, namely /ai̯/, /oi̯/, and /au̯/. The diphthongs /ai̯/ and /oy/ are fronting diphthongs, and the diphthong /aw/ is a backing diphthong. The use of these diphthongs can be seen below:

* /ai̯/: ''pantay'' 'beach', ''sungay'' 'river'
* /oi̯/: ''oy'' 'oi', ''amboy'' 'wow'
* /au̯/: ''suraw'' 'surau', ''bulaw'' 'fur'

The Pangkalpinang dialect has two additional diphthongs, which are /ow/ and /ey/. The Pangkalpinang dialect commonly employs the diphthongs /aw/ or /ow/ at the end of words, whereas other dialects typically use the vowel /u/. In addition, the Pangkalpinang dialect uses the diphthong /ey/ at the end of words, while other dialects use the vowel /i/ at the end of words. The use of these diphthongs can be seen below:

* /ou̯/: ''barow'' 'new' (other dialects: ''baru''), ''batow'' 'stone' (other dialects: ''batu'')
* /ei̯/: ''jarey'' 'finger' (other dialects: ''jari''), ''kuncey'' 'key' (other dialects: ''kunci'')

Grammar

Along with Indonesian, standard Malay, and other Malayic languages, the word order in Bangka Malay is typically subject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of Bangka Malay shares many similarities with Indonesian and Standard Malay.

Affixes

Bangka Malay has a number of affixes that can join with the base word to form an affixed word. In Bangka Malay, like other Malayic languages, there are three types of affixes: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. Prefixes are affixes attached at the beginning of a word, suffixes are affixes added at the end of a word, and infixes are affixes inserted in the middle of a word. Similar to other Malayic languages, Bangka Malay words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words.

Prefixes

In every dialect of Bangka Malay, there are seven prefixes: ''N-, be-, te-, di-, peN-, se-'' and ''ke-''. Specifically in the Toboali dialect, the prefix ''se-'' changes to ''ke-'' based on its phonological characteristics. These five dialects of Bangka Malay do not exhibit significant phonological changes in prefixes morphophonemically, in relation to other morphemes.

The prefix ''N-'' with a base form of verbs indicates 'performing the action described by the base form', such as ''merikin'' for 'counting'. When applied to nouns, the prefix ''N-'' signifies (1) 'becoming', as seen in ''mengarami'' for 'becoming salt', (2) 'making', as in ''merempah'' for 'making spices', (3) 'enjoying' or 'drinking', exemplified by ''ngopi'' meaning 'drinking coffee'. When used with adjectives, ''N-'' denotes 'becoming', like ''membesak'' for 'becoming large' or 'brightening up'.

In these dialects, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /n/ when followed by a word starting with a vowel phoneme. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''kapur'' 'calcium' → ''ngapur'' 'calcification'
* ''N-'' + ''kopi'' 'coffee' → ''ngopi'' 'to have a coffee'
* ''N-'' + ''kacaw'' 'messy' → ''ngacaw'' 'to mess up'

In those five dialects, the prefix N- changes to /n/ when followed by a word starting with the phoneme /g/. In the Mentok dialect, however, the phoneme /g/ does not undergo lenition, whereas in other dialects, the phoneme /g/ undergo lenition. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''gigit'' 'bite' → ''nggigit'' 'to bite' (other dialects is ''ngigit'')
* ''N- + goyang'' 'shake' ''→ nggoyang'' 'to shake' (other dialects is ''ngoyan'')
* ''N-'' + ''gunting'' 'cut' → ''nggunting'' 'cut' (other dialects is ''nguntin'')

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /m/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /p/. In this case, the phoneme /p/ will disappear. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''pacul'' 'hoe' → ''macul'' 'to hoe'
* ''N-'' + ''pegang'' 'hold' → ''megang'' 'to hold'
* ''N-'' + ''pukul'' 'punch' → ''mukul'' 'to punch'

In all five dialects of the Bangka Malay language, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /m/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /b/. In this case, the phoneme /b/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect, whereas in the other dialects, the phoneme /b/ undergo lenition. For example:

*''N-'' + ''beli'' 'buy' → ''mbeli'' 'to buy' (other dialects is ''meli'')
*''N-'' + ''buang'' 'throw' → ''mbuan'' 'to throw' (other dialects is ''muan'')
*''N-'' + ''bunuh'' 'kill' → ''mbunuh'' 'to kill' (other dialects is ''munuh'')
In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /ŋe/ when followed by a word that consists of only one syllable. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''bom'' 'bomb' → ''ngebom'' 'to bomb'
* ''N-'' + ''cet'' 'paint' → ''ngecet'' 'to paint'
* ''N-'' + ''las'' 'weld' → ''ngelas'' 'to weld'

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /ɲ/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /s/. For example:

*''N-'' + ''sapu'' 'broom' → ''nyapu'' 'to sweep'
*''N-'' + ''sikat'' 'brush' → ''nyapu'' 'to brush'
*''N-'' + ''sipak'' 'kick' → ''nyipak'' 'to kick'
In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /n/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /t/. In this case, the phoneme /t/ will undergo lenition. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''tulis'' 'write' → ''nulies'' 'to write'
* ''N-'' + ''tangkep'' 'catch' → ''nangkep'' 'to catch'
* ''N-'' + ''tunjok'' 'point' → ''nunjok'' 'to appoint'

In all five dialects of the Bangka Malay language, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /n/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /d/. In this case, the phoneme /d/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect, whereas in the other dialects, the phoneme /d/ undergo lenition. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''dapet'' 'get' → ''ndapet'' 'to get' (other dialects is ''napet'')
* ''N-'' + ''darat'' 'land' → ''ndarat'' 'to land' (other dialects is ''narat'')
* ''N-'' + ''denger'' 'hear' → ''ndenger'' 'to hear' (other dialects is ''nenger'')

When followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /l/ or the phoneme /j/, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /n/. In this case, the phoneme /l/ or /j/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect. In the other dialects, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /ɲ/. In this case, the phoneme /l/ or /j/ undergo lenition. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''cuci'' 'wash' → ''nyuci'' 'to get' (other dialects is ''ncuci'')
* ''N-'' + ''cube'' 'try' → ''nyube'' 'to try' (other dialects is ''ncube'')
* ''N-'' + ''jual'' 'sell' → ''nyual'' 'to hear' (other dialects is ''njual'')

When followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /l/, /r/, /w/, or /y/, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /ŋe/ in the Mentok dialect. In this case, the phonemes /l/, /r/, /w/, and /y/ do not undergo lenition. In the other dialects, the prefix ''N-'' changes to /me/. In this case, the phonemes /l/, /r/, /w/, and /y/ also do not undergo lenition. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''lapis'' 'layer' → ''ngelapis'' 'to layer' (other dialects is ''melapis'')
* ''N-'' + ''lipet'' 'fold' → ''ngelipet'' 'to fold' (other dialects is ''melipet'')
* ''N-'' + ''rase'' 'taste' → ''ngerase'' 'to taste' (other dialects is ''merase'')

Some speakers of the Belinyu, Sungailiat, and Pangkalpinang dialects also use the allomorphs /meŋ/, /mem/, /men/, and /meɲ/ alongside the allomorphs /ŋ/, /m/, /n/, and /ɲ/. For example:

* ''N-'' + ''buang'' 'throw' → ''membuang'' or ''muang'' 'to throw'
* ''N-'' + ''tulis'' 'write' → ''menulis'' or ''nulis'' 'to write'
* ''N-'' + ''sipak'' 'kick' → ''menyipak'' or ''nyipak'' 'to kick'

The prefix ''be-'' with a base form of verbs signifies 'often performing the action described by the base form', such as ''beburu'' for 'often hunting'. The prefix ''be-'' with a base form of nouns denotes (1) 'having', as in ''beanak'' for 'having children', (2) 'ascending', like ''beuto'' for 'ascending a hill' or ''bermobil'' for 'using a car', (3) 'wearing', as in ''besepan'' for 'wearing trousers', (4) 'engaging in', such as ''bekebon'' for 'engaging in gardening' or 'gardening', and (5) 'containing', exemplified by ''beracun'' meaning 'containing poison'.

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''be-'' changes to /ber/ when attached to a word that begins with a vowel phoneme. However, when attached to a word that begins with a different phoneme, the prefix ''be-'' does not change. For example:

* ''be-'' + ''perang'' 'war' → ''berperang'' 'to wage war'
* ''be-'' + ''asep'' 'smoke' → ''berasep'' 'smoky'
* ''be-'' + ''aek'' 'water' → ''beraek'' 'watery'

The prefix ''te-'' with a base form of verbs signifies 'completed, unintentional, or capable of performing the action described by the base form', such as ''teangkat'' for 'accidentally lifted' or 'able to be lifted'. The prefix ''te-'' with a base form of nouns means 'to emit', like ''tekemah'' for 'to emit a smell' or 'to urinate'. The prefix ''te-'' with a base form of adjectives means 'more', as in ''tepedas'' for 'more spicy' or 'spicier'.

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''te-'' changes to /ter/ when attached to a word that begins with a vowel phoneme, whereas when attached to a word that begins with a different phoneme, the prefix ''te-'' does not change. For example:

* ''te- + angket'' 'lift' → ''terangket'' 'get lifted'
* ''te- + makan'' 'eat' → ''termakan'' 'get eaten'
* ''te- + buang'' 'throw' → ''terbuang'' 'get thrown'

The prefix ''peN-'' with a base form of verbs denotes 'someone or something that performs the action described by the base form', such as ''pencuci'' for 'someone or something that washes'. Prefix ''peN-'' with a base form of adjectives signifies 'having the quality of being lazy' or 'a tool for becoming', as seen in ''penalus'' for 'a tool for becoming smooth' or 'a smoother'.

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''di-'' does not have any alternates. In these dialects, the prefix ''peN-'' changes to ''pen-'' when preceding words starting with /j/, /t/, /d/, /e/. In this case, /j/ and /t/ undergo lenition, while /d/, /e/, or /j/ do not undergo lenition. For example:

* ''peN- + tari'' 'dance' → ''penari'' 'dancer'
* ''peN- + dateng'' 'come' → ''pendateng'' 'newcomer'
* ''peN- + jale'' 'net' → ''penjale'' 'netter'

Prefix ''peN-'' changes to ''pen'' when preceding a word that begins with the phoneme /s/, and the phoneme /s/ undergo lenition. For example:

* ''peN- + sapu'' 'broom' → ''penyapu'' 'sweeper'
* ''peN- + suap'' 'bribe' → ''penyuap'' 'briber'
* ''peN- + sayang'' 'care' → ''penyayang'' 'carer'

Prefix ''peN-'' changes to /pe/ when preceding a word that begins with the phoneme /l/, /r/, /w/, or /j/. For example

* ''peN- + wares'' 'inherit' → ''pewares'' 'inheriter'
* ''peN- + wangi'' 'fragrant' → ''pewangi'' 'fragrance'
* ''peN- + rase'' 'taste' → ''perase'' 'taster'

The prefix ''se-'' with a base form of verbs signifies 'doing an action together with others', such as ''seminum'' for 'drinking together'. Prefix ''se-'' with a base form of nouns means 'using something together', like ''seromah'' for 'using a house together' or 'living together'. Prefix ''se-'' with a base form of adjectives denotes 'similar', as in ''sebesar'' for 'as big as' or 'of the same size'.

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefix ''se-'' does not have any alternates. For example:

* ''se-'' + ''romah'' 'house' → ''seromah'' 'whole house'
* ''se-'' + ''tinggi'' 'tall' → ''setinggi'' 'as tall as'
* ''se-'' + ''luas'' 'wide' → ''seluas'' 'as wide as'

The prefix ''ke-'' with a base form of verbs means 'to be affected by', such as ''kecopet'' for 'to be affected by pickpocketing' or 'to get pickpocketed'. Prefix ''ke-'' with a base form of adjectives signifies 'being viewed', like ''ketua'' for 'being viewed as a leader' or 'leader'.

In Bangka Malay, the prefix ''ke-'' does not have any alternates. For example:

* ''ke- + tue'' 'old' → ''ketue'' 'leader, elder'
* ''ke- + kaseh'' 'love' → ''kekaseh'' 'lover'
* ''ke- + liet'' 'see' → ''keliet'' 'visible'

Infixes

In Bangka Malay, there exist three infixes: ''-el-'', ''-em-'', ''-er-''. However, these infixes are not that productive in forming new words within this language. There are very few newly formed words utilizing these infixes across the five dialects of Bangka Malay. In Bangka Malay, infix is defined as 'many or multiple', such as ''gerigi'' which means 'many teeth'. For example:

* ''-el- + tunjuk'' 'point' → ''telunjuk'' 'index finger'
* ''-el- + tapak'' 'footstep' → ''telapak'' 'palm'
* ''-em- + guncan'' 'shake' → ''gemuncan'' 'shaking'
* ''-em- + guruh'' 'thunder' → ''gemuruh'' 'thundering'

Suffixes

In Bangka Malay, there are three suffixes: ''-ken'', ''-ne'', and ''-an''. The usage of these suffixes varies across the five dialects of Bangka Malay.

The suffix ''-ken'' with a base form of verbs means 'to put into or to make into', similar to the suffix ''-kan'' in Standard Indonesian and Malay, such as ''sarongken'' for 'to put into a sheath' or 'to sheath'. The suffix ''-ken'' with a base form of adjectives means 'to make more', such as ''kecitken'' for 'to make smaller' or 'to shrink'. The suffix ''-ken'' varies across different dialects. The Mentok, Belinyu, and Toboali dialects use ''-ken'', the Sungailiat dialect also uses ''-ken'', but pronounced as /kən/, and the Pangkalpinang dialect uses ''-kan''. The usage of the suffix is shown below:

* ''duduk'' 'sit' + ''-ken → dudukken'' 'to make someone sit'
* ''minom'' 'drink' + ''-ken → minomken'' 'to make someone drink'
* ''lari'' 'run' + ''-ken → lariken'' 'to make someone run'

The suffix ''-nye'' with a base form of verbs or adjectives denotes 'something related to the matter mentioned in the base form', as seen in ''larinye'', which refers to 'something related to running or its running'. The equivalent in Standard Indonesian and Malay for this suffix is ''-nya''. The suffix also varies across different dialects. The Mentok dialect uses ''-nye'', the Belinyu dialect uses ''-nyo'', while the Sungailiat, Toboali, and Pangkalpinang dialects use ''-e'', pronounced as /ə/. The usage is shown below:

* ''tinggi'' 'tall' + ''-nye → tingginye'' 'so tall'
* ''malam'' 'night' + ''-nye → malamnye'' 'so dark'
* ''puteh'' 'white' + ''-nye → putihnye'' 'so white'

The suffix ''-an'', in Bangka Malay, is only used with verbs to form new words meaning 'tool or result of performing the action indicated by the base form', such as ''timbangan'' 'weight scale', which means 'tool for or result of weighing'. The suffix ''-an'' is only used in the Mentok, Sungailiat, and Pangkalpinang dialects. The Belinyu dialect often does not use the suffix ''-an''. In fact, the Toboali dialect does not use this suffix at all. In the Belinyu dialect, words like ''cucian'' 'laundry' are expressed as ''baju kotor'' and ''tulisan'' 'writing' as ''tulis''. The usage is shown below:

* ''main'' 'play' + ''-an'' ''→ mainan'' 'toy'
* ''hari'' 'day' + ''-an'' ''→ harian'' 'daily routine'
* ''cuci'' 'wash' + ''-an'' ''→ cucian'' 'laundry'

Reduplication

The five dialects in Bangka Malay do not show variations in the use of full reduplication. Full reduplication is applied to nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Full reduplication with nouns is used to indicate plurality or forms resembling the base form. For example:

* ''kude-kude'' 'horse-horse'
* ''rumah-rumah'' 'house-house'
* ''pal-pal'' 'pole-pole' (from Dutch)

Full reduplication with verbs in Bangka Malay is used to indicate performing the action described by the base form repeatedly or continuously. For example:

* ''duduk-duduk sitting idly'
* ''jalan-jalan'' 'walking around'
* ''makan-makan'' 'eating together'

Full reduplication with adjectives in Bangka Malay is used to express intensity or to indicate being constantly in the state described by the base form. For example:

* ''pintar-pintar'' 'smart'
* ''rajin-rajin'' 'hardworking'
* ''sakit-sakit'' 'sick'

Partial reduplication with verbs is used to indicate repeated actions or reciprocal actions described by the base form. In this case, the Belinyu dialect uses the prefix ''be-'', while other dialects use the prefix ''N-''. For example:

* ''begebuk-gebuk'' 'to fight one another' (other dialects is ''gebuk-mengebuk'')
* ''betarik-tarik'' 'to pull one another' (other dialects is ''tarik-menarik)''
* ''betiru-tiru'' 'to mimic one another' (other dialects is ''tiru-meniru)''

Nouns

Nouns can be combined with the suffixes ''-ku'' and ''-e'' as well as the prefix ''peN-'' or can be directly linked with numerals. There are some base words that are already counted as nouns. For example:

* ''burung'' 'bird'
* ''bini'' 'wife'
* ''sungot'' 'mouth'
* ''telo'' 'egg'
* ''asuk'' 'dog' (from Javanese)

Nouns can also be identified through a number of distinguishing features. For example, numerals are a stable determinant of nouns. Noun-forming affixes include ''-ku'', ''-e'', and ''peN-''. Examples include:

* ''ketue'' 'leader' or 'elder'
* ''pemaling'' 'thief'
* ''penjerat'' 'trapper'
* ''umahku'' 'my house'
* ''binie'' 'his wife'

Nouns can also be combined with personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns, such as ''ika 'your', ''kite'' 'our (exclusive)', ''ini'' 'this' or ''itu'' 'that'. For example:

* ''umah ikak'' 'your house'
* ''umah kite'' 'our house'
* ''umah ini'' 'this house'
* ''umah itu'' 'that house'

Nouns can also be combined with quantitative structural words, such as ''banyak'' 'many' or ''tiap'' 'every'. For example:

* ''banyak umah tebakar'' 'many houses are on fire'
* ''banyak urang nanam kupi'' 'many people are planting coffees'
* ''bakarung-karung kupi'' 'sacks of coffee'
* ''tiap urang'' Islam 'every Muslims'

Verbs

Verbs are words that can be used as commands or words that have the affixes ''me-'', ''di-'', ''be-'', ''ke-'', ''-kan''. There are several verbs that are already in the form of base words. For example:

* ''ambik'' 'take'
* ''duduk'' 'sit'
* ''kejar'' 'chase'
* ''tugak'' 'call'

The affixes that determine verbs are as follows:

* ''mawak'' 'to bring'
* ''nyerong'' 'to push'
* ''dicekek'' 'got strangled'
* ''dimakan'' 'got eaten'
* ''betemu'' 'to meet'
* ''bebunyi'' 'to sound'
* ''kedengar'' 'to be heard'
* ''kepanas'' 'to feel hot'
* ''basuhken'' 'to wash'
* ''polidangken'' 'to throw'
* ''teinjak'' 'got stepped'
* ''tegantung'' 'got hanged'

The structural word ''lah'' in commands serves as a determinant for verbs. For example:

* ''pangkulah'' 'to grasp'
* ''bacelah'' 'to read'
* ''simpenlah'' 'to keep'

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that can be compared and occupy specific positions in sentences. Adjectives can be basic words consisting of two syllables or occasionally just one syllable. For example:

* ''kayo'' 'rich'
* ''kutor'' 'dirty'
* ''burok'' 'bad'
* ''besak'' 'big'
* ''kecit'' 'small'

Adjectives can also take the form of derived words, which can be created by adding prefixes or through reduplication. For example:

* ''sepacak-pacake'' 'as much as possible'
* ''sekecit-kecite'' 'as small as possible'
* ''tekayo'' 'richest'
* ''tetinggi'' 'highest'

There are several adverbs that can function as determiners for adjectives. These adverbs can occupy positions both before and after adjectives in sentences. Examples include ''umon'' 'really', ''sikit'' 'a little', ''paling'' 'most', and ''dak'' 'not'. The usage of these words can be seen below:

* ''panas umon'' 'really hot'
* ''kutor umon'' 'really dirty'
* ''merah sikit'' 'a little red'
* ''maju sikit'' 'a little forward'
* ''paling gancang'' 'the fastest'
* ''paling membantu'' 'the most helpful'
* ''dak luas'' 'not wide'
* ''dak sihat'' 'not healthy'

Adverbs

Adverb can occupy both the initial and final positions in a sentence. Examples of adverbs include ''agik'' 'again', ''di sini'' 'here', ''pelan'' 'slowly', and ''terang umon'' 'clearly'. Their usage can be seen in the following examples:

* ''Urang tu ngisahken kisahe sekali agik.'' 'The man told his story once again'
* ''Urang tu ngisahken kisahe di sini''. 'The man tells his story here.'
* ''Die nyupir pelan''. 'He's driving the car slowly.'
* ''Terang umon die ngisah kisahe''. 'He's telling the story clearly.'

The degree of comparison of adverbs can be divided into comparative and superlative. Examples of comparative adverbs are:

* ''lambat nue'' 'slower'
* ''jelas nue'' 'clealer'

Examples of superlative adverbs are:

* ''selambete'' 'slowest'
* ''sejelase'' 'clearest'

Pronouns

Pronouns in Bangka Malay can be divided into personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and interrogative pronouns.

Personal pronouns

This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used personal pronouns in Bangka Malay.

There can exist different pronouns in Bangka Malay with the same English equivalent, depending on the politeness level or other usage. For example, "I" in Bangka Malay can be translated as ''aku'' or ''saye''. ''Saye'' is usually used in more polite situations, while ''aku'' is the opposite.

The usage of personal pronouns varies among the dialects of Bangka Malay. For example, ''sayo'' 'I', ''kamek'' 'we (exclusive)', and ''kito'' 'we (inclusive)' are primarily used in the Belinyu dialect, while other dialects use ''saye'', ''kami'', and ''kite'' respectively. The word ''ente'' 'you', borrowed from Arabic, is primarily used in the Central Bangka dialect ( Pangkalpinang and Sungailiat). The word ''ikak'' can have different meanings depending on the dialect. In the Mentok dialect, it means 'you,' whereas in the Toboali dialect, it means 'them.'

Interrogative pronouns

Examples of interrogative pronouns in Bangka Malay include ''ape/apo'' 'what', ''siape/sape/sapo'' 'who/whose', ''macem mane/cemane'' 'how', ''hape'' 'who (Toboali dialect)', ''berape'' 'how much', ''sebile'' 'when', ''hebile'' 'when (Toboali dialect)', and ''ngape'' 'why'. The usage of the aforementioned words are shown below:

* ''Ape gawe ikak? '''What are your jobs?'
* ''Etek sape ni masok dapor kite ni?'' 'Whose duck came into our kitchen?'
* ''Cobelah pakai akel cemane care e bise pulang.'' 'Try to use your wits to figure out how you can go home.'
* ''Berape angke plat motor ka?'' 'What is your motorcycle's license plate number?'
* ''Yo sebile bawak urang rumah e ke sini?'' 'When will you bring your wife here?'
* ''Ngape ka begegese cem tu, santai bai''. 'Why are you so restless? Just calm down.'

Demonstrative pronouns

There are two demonstrative pronouns in Bangka Malay. ''Ni'' "this, these" is used for a noun generally near to the speaker. ''Tu'' "that, those" is used for a noun generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. Example of the usage of these words are shown below:

* ''Tolong isik angen ban motorku ni''. 'Please fill up my motorbike's tires.'
* ''Belagak e ka ni''. You are so arrogant.'
* ''Nasik di atas meja tu lah basik''. 'The rice on the table is already spoiled.'
* ''Kanak-kanak tu maen bal terus''. 'The children keep playing the ball.'

Vocabulary

Like other Malayic languages, Bangka Malay features several unique vocabularies that are not found in Standard Malay or Indonesian. Additionally, each dialect within Bangka Malay has its own lexical differences. As Bangka was historically governed by the Palembang Sultanate, there has been significant lexical influence from Palembang Malay on Bangka Malay, particularly in the Belinyu dialect. Bangka Malay has absorbed loanwords from Palembang Malay, such as ''sikok'' 'one', ''betino'' 'female', and ''mato'' 'eye'. In addition, under the influence of Palembang Malay, Bangka Malay has incorporated a significant number of Javanese loanwords, as Javanese was once the court language of the Palembang Sultanate. Terms such as ''buntut'' 'tail' and ''kuping'' 'ear' have entered Bangka Malay via Palembang Malay, originating from Javanese. The influence of Javanese and other regional languages on Bangka Malay may have increased due to the influx of migrants from other parts of Indonesia to Bangka. With Indonesian holding the status of the national language and serving as the language of education and business in Indonesia, Bangka Malay has gradually begun to absorb many loanwords from Indonesian. This phenomenon is not only observed in Bangka Malay, but also in other regional languages throughout the country.

There is also some influence of foreign languages on Bangka Malay, notably from Hakka, Dutch and Arabic. The influx of immigrants from Guangdong in the 19th century led to a significant Hakka community settling in Bangka. As a result, Bangka Malay has incorporated vocabulary from Hakka. As Bangka was once under Dutch rule, similar to other parts of Indonesia, it adopted a few loanwords from Dutch. Some words derived from Dutch in Bangka Malay are not found in standard Indonesian or other languages, such as ''bal'' 'ball', which in standard Indonesian and Malay is translated as ''bola,'' as well as ''uto'' 'car' which in standard Indonesian and Malay is translated as ''mobil'' or ''kereta'' respectively. Arabic words entered Bangka Malay due to the spread of Islam or Arab migration to Bangka, examples include ''afdhol'' 'better' and ''ente'' 'you'.

Below are examples of commonly used Bangka Malay vocabulary in various dialects, along with their Indonesian and English translations:

Numerals

Directions

Personal Pronouns

Interrogatives Pronouns

Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Writing system

Bangka Malay was historically written in the Jawi script, also known as Arab-Melayu or Gundul script. This script was introduced during the rule of the Palembang Sultanate in Bangka. In the past, many manuscripts found in Bangka are written in the Jawi script. The usage of the script gradually diminishes during the Dutch colonization, due to the introduction of formal education which uses the Latin script. Today, the use of the Jawi script for day-to-day communication is very rare. It is now primarily reserved for cultural purposes, such as writing calligraphy.

Since the Dutch colonial era, the people of Bangka have predominantly used the Latin script with the Indonesian orthography. Consequently, the orthography in Bangka Malay has undergone several changes. During the Dutch era, the Bangka Malay-speaking community used the Van Ophuijsen Spelling System. From 1947 to 1972, they used the Republican Spelling System. Since 1972, the Bangka Malay-speaking community has been using the Enhanced Spelling System. Nevertheless, the earlier Latin orthographic systems still have a significant influence on the Bangka Malay-speaking community. Many of them, especially the older generation, have not fully adopted the Enhanced Spelling System. The influence of the old orthographic systems is clearly evident in the writing of words containing letters that were replaced by other letters in the Enhanced Spelling System.

There are still many people, possibly a significant number, who write words like ''cube'' 'to try', ''naman'' 'delicious', and ''jangui'' 'chin' with spellings such as ''chube'', ''nyaman'', and ''djanggu'' respectively. When writing reduplicated words and prepositions, it appears that many people in Bangka have not yet adopted the Enhanced Spelling System. They write reduplicated words using the numeral two and connect prepositions directly with the following noun. For instance, the phrase ''dikulamkulam'' 'in the ponds' is written as ''dikulam2'', which is still based on the old Republican Spelling System, whereas according to the Enhanced Spelling System, it should be written as ''di kulam-kulam''. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bangka Malay-speaking community has not yet adopted a uniform orthographic system for writing their language with the Latin alphabet.

Literature

Like other Malayic languages, Bangka Malay has a tradition of oral literature in the form of poetry and prose. Each region in Bangka may have its own unique version of oral literature. Oral literature in the form of prose consists of folk tales. Poetry, on the other hand, includes various forms such as pantun, campak, mantra, and jampi. The Bangka Malay pantun has a physical structure consisting of: diction, imagery, concrete words, figurative language, as well as rhyme and rhythm. The meaning in pantun is built through an inner structure consisting of: themes, feelings, tones, as well as atmosphere and message. In Bangka, Pantun serves functions such as communication, cultural identity, embellishment of oral traditions, means of propagation, educational tool, embodiment of customs, entertainment, cultural symbols, fostering heroism, and as a means to enhance humanity among the Bangka Malay community. Campak is a local call-and-response type of pantun used in traditional ceremonies to accompany the Campak dance, a traditional dance originating from Bangka.

Below are some examples of pantuns that originated from Bangka along with its Indonesian and English translation:

References

Bibliography

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Agglutinative languages
Languages of Indonesia
Malay dialects
Malayic languages