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Ayatollah (, ; ; ) is an honorific title for high-ranking
Twelver Twelver Shi'ism (), also known as Imamism () or Ithna Ashari, is the Islamic schools and branches, largest branch of Shia Islam, Shi'a Islam, comprising about 90% of all Shi'a Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers to its adherents' belief in twel ...
Shia clergy The Shia clergy are the religious leaders of Shia Islam. Shia Islam places great importance on the guidance of clergy, and each branch of Shi'ism maintains its own clerical structure. The most well-known Shia clergy belongs to the largest branch ...
. It came into widespread usage in the 20th century. Originally used as a title bestowed by popular/clerical acclaim for a small number of the most distinguished ''
marja' Marja (; plural ''marājiʿ''; ) is a title given to the highest level of Twelver Shia religious cleric, with the authority given by a hawzah (a seminary where Shi'a Muslim scholars are educated) to make legal decisions within the confines of Sh ...
at-taqlid'' ''
mujtahid ''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' (i ...
'', it suffered from "inflation" following the 1979
Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...
when it came to be used for "any established mujtahid".Momen, ''An Introduction to Shi'i Islam'', 1985, p.205-6 By 2015 it was further expanded to include any student who had passed their Mujtahid final exam, leading to "thousands" of Ayatollahs. The title is not used by the
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
community of Iran. In the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and state (polity), states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also const ...
– especially after the
Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...
– it was associated with
Ruhollah Khomeini Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini (17 May 1900 or 24 September 19023 June 1989) was an Iranian revolutionary, politician, political theorist, and religious leader. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the main leader of the Iranian ...
, who was so well known as to often be referred to as "The Ayatollah".


Etymology

The title is originally derived from the Arabic word post-modified with the word ''
Allah Allah ( ; , ) is an Arabic term for God, specifically the God in Abrahamic religions, God of Abraham. Outside of the Middle East, it is principally associated with God in Islam, Islam (in which it is also considered the proper name), althoug ...
'', making (). The combination has been translated to English as 'Sign of God', 'Divine Sign' or 'Reflection of God'. It is a frequently-used term in the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
, but its usage in this context is presumably a particular reference to the verse "We shall show them Our signs on the horizons and in their own selves", while it has been also used to refer to
The Twelve Imams The Twelve Imams (, '; , ') are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Twelver branch of Shia Islam, including that of the Alawite and Alevi. According to Twelver theology, the Twelve Imams are exemplary ...
by Shias. Variants used are (), (, dual form) or (,
plural form In many languages, a plural (sometimes abbreviated as pl., pl, , or ), is one of the values of the grammatical category of number. The plural of a noun typically denotes a quantity greater than the default quantity represented by that noun. This ...
) and ().


Qualifications

Though no formal hierarchical structure exists among Shia clerics, a "hierarchy of difference" can be elaborated to describe the situation. Traditionally, the title Ayatollah was awarded by popular usage only to the very few highest ranking, prominent ''
Mujtahid ''Ijtihad'' ( ; ' , ) is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. It is contrasted with '' taqlid'' (i ...
''. Qualifications included *being a definite ''Mujtahid'', *being regarded among peers as superior in ''aʿlamīyat'' () and *being superior in 'riyāsat'' (), which is determined by popular acclamation, as well as collecting a huge amount of ''
Khums In Islam, khums ( ) is a tax on Muslims which obligates them to pay one-fifth (20%) of their acquired wealth from the spoils of war and, according to most Muslim jurists, other specified types of income, towards various designated beneficiarie ...
'' (religious taxes). Consequently, by the 1960s a cleric addressed as an Ayatollah was expected to be a ''
Marja' Marja (; plural ''marājiʿ''; ) is a title given to the highest level of Twelver Shia religious cleric, with the authority given by a hawzah (a seminary where Shi'a Muslim scholars are educated) to make legal decisions within the confines of Sh ...
''.


Devaluation trend

The title of Ayatollah (and other Iranian Shi'i titles) has been "cheapened" since then.
Roy Mottahedeh Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (born July 3, 1940-July 30, 2024) was an American historian who was Gurney Professor of History, Emeritus at Harvard University, where he taught courses on the pre-modern social and intellectual history of the Islamic Middle ...
describes how the title of ayatollah was determined in the mid to late 20th century. According to
Michael M. J. Fischer Michael M. J. Fischer is Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities and Professor of Anthropology and Science and Technology Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Lecturer in the Department of Global Health and Social Medicin ...
, the
Iranian Revolution The Iranian Revolution (, ), also known as the 1979 Revolution, or the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (, ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Impe ...
led to "rapid inflation of religious titles", so that almost every senior cleric began to be called an Ayatollah. raising the number of individuals who call themselves an Ayatollah dramatically. An unwritten rule of
addressing An address is a collection of information used to give the location of a building or a plot of land. Address or The Address may also refer to: * ''Address'' (film), an upcoming Indian film by Rajamohan * '' Melvilasom'' or ''The Address'', a 201 ...
for Shia clerics has been developed after the 1980s as a result of Iranian Revolution, despite the fact no official institutional way of conferring titles is available. At first the title that had been reserved for a Marja', was gradually applied to an established Mujtahid. With the post-revolutionary bureaucratization of Shia seminaries under the
Islamic Republic The term Islamic republic has been used in different ways. Some Muslim religious leaders have used it as the name for a form of Islamic theocratic government enforcing sharia, or laws compatible with sharia. The term has also been used for a s ...
, four levels of studies were introduced and those clerics who end the fourth level, also known as ''Dars-e-Kharej'' () and pass the final exam, were called Ayatollahs.
Moojan Momen Moojan Momen (b. 1950) is a retired physician and historian specializing in Baháʼí studies who has published numerous books and articles about the Baháʼí Faith and Islam, especially Shia Islam, including for Encyclopædia Iranica the British ...
wrote in 2015 that every cleric who finished his training calls himself an Ayatollah and this trend has led to emergence of "thousands of Ayatollahs". This inflation led to invention of a new title, ''Ayatollah al-Uzma'' (). Originally, about half a dozen people were addressed as al-Uzma, but as of 2015, the number of people who claimed that title was reportedly over 50.


Political connotations

Another post-
revolutionary A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates for, a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective to describe something producing a major and sudden impact on society. Definition The term—bot ...
change in what makes an ayatollah has been the falling away (at least in many important situations), of purely religious credentials and informal acclamation, and its replacement by political criteria.
Ali Khamenei Ali Hosseini Khamenei (; born 19 April 1939) is an Iranian cleric and politician who has served as the second supreme leader of Iran since 1989. He previously served as the third President of Iran, president from 1981 to 1989. Khamenei's tenure ...
—who was addressed with mid-level title of ''
Hujjat al-Islam Hujjat al-Islam (, ) is an Islamic honorific title which translates in English to "authority on Islam" or "proof of Islam". The title "Hujjat al-Islam" is given to scholars with a high level of Islamic expertise and Islamic theology. Essentiall ...
'' when he was in office as
President of Iran The president of the Islamic Republic of Iran () is the head of government of the Iran, Islamic Republic of Iran and the second highest-ranking official, after the Supreme Leader of Iran, supreme leader. The 1980 Iranian presidential election, fi ...
—was bestowed the title Ayatollah immediately after he was elected
Supreme Leader of Iran The supreme leader of Iran, also referred to as the supreme leader of the Islamic Revolution, but officially called the supreme leadership authority, is the head of state and the highest political and religious authority of Iran (above the Presi ...
in 1989, without meeting regular unwritten criteria (such as authoring a '' Risalah''). Since the 2010s, sources under government control tend to give him more distinguished titles like ''Grand Ayatollah'' and ''Imam''. Certain clerics, such as
Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari Sayyid Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari (), also spelled Shariat-Madari (5 January 1906 – 3 April 1986), was an Iranian Grand Ayatollah. He favoured the traditional Shiite practice of keeping clerics away from governmental positions and was a crit ...
and
Hussein-Ali Montazeri Grand Ayatollah Hussein-Ali Montazeri ( ; 24 September 1922 – 19 December 2009) was an Iranian Shia Islamic theologian, Islamic democracy advocate, writer, and human rights activist. He was one of the leaders of the Iranian Revolution and on ...
, who had fallen out of favor with the rulers were downgraded by not being addressed as an Ayatollah.


Usage


Origins, early 20th century

The earliest known address of this title is for Ibn Mutahhar Al-Hilli (died 1374), however it was not in use as a title for those qualifying until the 20th century. Glassé states that following domination of
Twelver Twelver Shi'ism (), also known as Imamism () or Ithna Ashari, is the Islamic schools and branches, largest branch of Shia Islam, Shi'a Islam, comprising about 90% of all Shi'a Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers to its adherents' belief in twel ...
branch by followers of school and demise of school, the title was popularized by s as an attempt to promote their status.
Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi Mirza Ali-Aqa Tabrizi, () known as Seghatoleslam, Thiqat-ul-Islam Tabrizi (; January 19, 1861 - December 31, 1911) was an Iranian nationalist who lived in Tabriz, Iran, during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and was a reformist Shia cleric. ...
was the first one to use the term for the sources of emulation in Najaf, especially Akhund Khurasani (1839–1911), to distinguish them from the clerics of lower rank in Tehran, during the 1905-1911
Persian Constitutional Revolution The Persian Constitutional Revolution (, or ''Enghelāb-e Mashrūteh''), also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, took place between 1905 and 1911 during the Qajar Iran, Qajar era. The revolution led to the establishment of a Majl ...
. (
Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai Mirza Seyyed Mohammad Tabatabai (Persian: آیت الله میرزا سید محمد طباطبائی, also known as Mohammad Sang-e-laji,;''Sang-e-laj'' (سَنگِلَج) is one of the neighbourhoods of the Old Tehran, not far from the Grand Ba ...
and
Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani Seyyed ''Sayyid'' is an honorific title of Hasanid and Husaynid lineage, recognized as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and Ali's sons Hasan and Husayn. The title may also refer to the descendants ...
were also given that honorific by constitutionalists according to '' Loghatnameh Dehkhoda''.)
Hamid Algar Hamid Algar (born 1940) is a British-American Professor Emeritus of Persian studies at the Faculty of Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Berkeley. He writes on Persian and Arabic literature and contemporary history of Iran, Turkey, th ...
maintains that this title entered general usage possibly because it was an "indirect result of the reform and strengthening of the religious institution in
Qom Qom (; ) is a city in the Central District of Qom County, Qom province, Iran, serving as capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is the seventh largest metropolis and also the seventh largest city in Iran. The city is ...
".
Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi Grand Ayatollah Hajj Sheikh Abdolkarim Haeri Yazdi (; ; 1859 – 30 January 1937) was an Iranian Twelver Shia Muslim scholar and marja. He was the founder of an important Islamic seminary (hawza) in Qom, Iran. Among his students was Ruhollah ...
(1859–1937) who founded
Qom Seminary The Qom Seminary (') is the largest and one of the foremost Shia Islam, Shia hawzas (Islamic seminaries), located in the city of Qom, Iran. It is the largest seminary in Iran, established in 1922 by Grand Ayatollah Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi in Qom to ...
, may be the first to bear the title according to Algar. While the title Ayatollah was sporadically used during the 1930s, it became widespread in the 1940s.


Stages of contemporary titles for Shia clerics in Iran


Grand Ayatollah

Only a few of the most important ayatollahs are accorded the rank of Grand Ayatollah (''Ayatollah Uzma'', "Great Sign of God"). When an ayatollah gains a significant following and they are recognized for religiously correct views, they are considered a ''Marja'-e-Taqlid'', which in common parlance is "grand ayatollah". Usually as a prelude to such status, a ''mujtahid'' is asked to publish a juristic treatise in which he answers questions about the application of Islam to present-time daily affairs. ''Risalah'' is the word for treatise, and such a juristic work is called a ''risalah-yi'amaliyyah'' or "practical law treatise", . A Grand Ayatollah is often seen as a spiritual guide and mentor to millions of Shia Muslims. Their influence extends beyond the mosque and into the social and political arenas. Unlike many religious leaders of other religions, a grand ayatollah is often involved in state affairs, especially in countries with large Shia populations such as Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon.


Use of the term as a pejorative

In the West, particularly the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, the term "Ayatollah" may be used as a pejorative to describe religious fundamentalism. Sam Miller of ''
London Review of Books The ''London Review of Books'' (''LRB'') is a British literary magazine published bimonthly that features articles and essays on fiction and non-fiction subjects, which are usually structured as book reviews. History The ''London Review of Book ...
'' states that following the Iranian Revolution, "ayatollah" became common use; Miller described the pejorative version of the term as " vokingan old, turbaned, bearded man, sitting in judgment, looking like a crow and ordering the execution of the impure." However, the term is generally used to describe any kind of fundamentalism, not just Islamism. For example, in the choice of title for the 1987 English translation of Raphael Mergui and Philippe Simonnot's book ''Israel's Ayatollahs: Meir Kahane and the Far Right in Israel'', or in the United States, where former jurist and lawyer
Roy Moore Roy Stewart Moore (born February 11, 1947) is an American politician, lawyer, and jurist who served as chief justice of the Supreme Court of Alabama from 2001 to 2003 and again from 2013 to 2017, each time being removed from office for judic ...
has been called the "Ayatollah of Alabama" by his critics due to espousing
Christian nationalism Christian nationalism is a form of religious nationalism that focuses on promoting the Christian views of its followers, in order to achieve prominence or Dominion theology, dominance in political, cultural, and social life. In countries with a ...
, opposition to
secularism Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened ...
, and
far-right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on the far end of the ...
politics.


See also

* ''
Ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...
'' * ''
Faqīh A ''faqīh'' (: ''fuqahāʾ'', ; : ‏‎) is an Islamic jurist, an expert in ''fiqh'', or Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic law. Definition Islamic jurisprudence or ''fiqh'' is the human understanding of Sharia, which is believed ...
'' * ''
Allamah ''Allamah'' () is an Islamic honorary title for a profound scholar, a polymath, a man of vast reading and erudition, or a great learned one. The title is carried by scholars of Islamic fiqh (jurisprudence) and philosophy. It is used as an hon ...
'' * ''
Mullah Mullah () is an honorific title for Islam, Muslim clergy and mosque Imam, leaders. The term is widely used in Iran and Afghanistan and is also used for a person who has higher education in Islamic theology and Sharia, sharia law. The title h ...
'' * ''
Akhoond Akhund () is a Persian title or surname for Islamic scholars, common in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Azerbaijan. Other names for similar Muslim Scholar include Sheikh and Mullah. The Standard Chinese word for Imam ...
'' * ''
Sheikh Sheikh ( , , , , ''shuyūkh'' ) is an honorific title in the Arabic language, literally meaning "elder (administrative title), elder". It commonly designates a tribal chief or a Muslim ulama, scholar. Though this title generally refers to me ...
'' *
Clericalism in Iran Islamic Clericalism in Iran has a long history and had a remarkable impact on Iranian society, politics as well as on Islamic theology. Emergence There are controversies about the emergence of clericalism in Iran. Some scholars believe that cle ...
*
List of current maraji This article provides the list of marjas, ''maraji'' (plural of ''marja'', the supreme legal authority or the source of emulation), followed by Twelver (also known as ''Imamiyyah'') Shia Muslims around the world. The concept of a ''marja-i taqlid'' ...
* ''
Seghatoleslam ''Seghatoleslam'' ( Persian: ثقت الاسلام ) also spelled ''Seqat-ol-eslam'', or ''Thiqat ul-Islam'', is an honorific title within the Twelver Shia clergy. Historically, it denoted a scholar who had completed a certain level of relig ...
'' *
Twelver Shia holy days Twelver Shi'ism, Twelver Shia Muslims commemorate significant events in the lives of their Imams throughout the year. These commemorations, known as ma'ātem, are observed according to the Islamic lunar calendar (Hijri year, Hijri). They include ...


Explanatory notes


References


Citations


General and cited sources

* * * * * * ** * * * * * * *


External links

* {{Wiktionary-inline Hawza Islamic honorifics Islamic Persian honorifics Quranic words and phrases Religious titles Shia clerics