Asobi (ancient Japan)

(also sometimes known as ) were Shinto priestesses devoted to the goddess Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto during the Heian period (794–1185) in Japan. Originating as performers of shamanistic rituals performed to appease the souls of the dead, originally functioned as priestesses designed to deal with death. Though they played a role in conducting royal funerals, with the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism in the 700s, the place of in royal funerals disappeared, and they instead became known for their songs. In combination with receiving gifts for sexual favors, became the source of wealth for .

After the Taihō Reform Code in 701 and the Yōrō code of 718, the public began to develop unsavory views toward the practices of . Though they conducted business similarly to prostitutes, they were considered to be performers because of their musical talents. being the term for prostitute, the dictionary Wamyō ruijushō (compiled by Minamoto no Shitagō in the 930s) describes the difference as follows: "Those who wander about in the daytime are called , while those who wait until nighttime and then engage in wanton sex () are called ." were sometimes disparagingly referred to as , by one of their similar successors' names: , , and , or referred to under the umbrella term for prostitutes of .

History of the term

priestesses worshipped the goddess Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto and believed themselves to be her descendants. The term is said to come from a myth about the goddess Ame-no-Uzume on the origins of the Japanese nation recorded in the (Record of Ancient Matters). The myth is as follows:

Amaterasu had a brother by the name of Susano-no-Mikoto. He repeatedly pranked Amaterasu which drove her to hide away in a rock cave. Her retreat brought darkness to the celestial realm and gods gathered at the cave. Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto danced in front of the gathered gods. Divinely possessed, she became half-naked and exposed her breasts and lower body to the crowd. This made the gods burst into laughter. Upon hearing the commotion, Amaterasu peeked out of the cave to quell her curiosity.

Ame-no-Uzume's actions are labeled in the Kojiki as , which directly translates to "play". Ame-no-Uzume's actions were essentially a shamanistic ritual now interpreted as the archetypal funerary ritual performed to appease the soul of the dead. Before changes in the early 700s, functioned as priestesses designed to deal with death and the relief of society from potential chaos and communal paralysis. They brought collective renewal in times of loss through transformational magic. From the myth as well as their social function, the archetypal image of became that of a priestess and entertainer who mediated the worlds of light and darkness, or life and death.

The special lineage group who served the royal morticians were called the . lineage was succeeded by female clan members, but included some male members who worked as assistants. The had exclusive access to royal coffins during enshrinement. They performed ritual dances and incantations that were passed down secretly through generations. Their rituals were considered crucial for deaths in the imperial court so they were granted immunity from conscript labor and taxes. They also had a distinct naming practice. In contrast to the standard convention during the Heian period, which identified both men and women in name by their parents, office, status, or court occupation, used personal names. Somewhat similar to stage names, this naming practice indicated occupied a position outside the hierarchy of the court and patriarchal family.

After the introduction of the Taihō Reform Code of 701 and the Yōrō Code of 718, unsavory views of emerged. These codes adopted the legal and administrative system of China in attempts to consolidate central government power. Much of China's system was based on Confucianism, and as such many areas of Japan enforced the Confucian ethic of hard work, with a large shift in focus to agriculture production. Since were exempt from conscripted labor, they did not contribute to agrarian processes and were viewed as non-productive. A section of the Yōrō code describes as such:

services began to carry a negative implication and the as a whole became an expendable component of society. As the Taihō reforms became more entrenched in society, Buddhism took root. Buddhist priests, which consisted of mostly males, took over imperial funerary operations and the lost their status. Once the center of the religious sphere, became a part of periphery society.

After being pushed out of their role in funerary proceedings, women were forced to find a new way to survive which led them to use their traditional dances and songs to survive. This, however, did not provide them enough funds to survive, leading them to turn to prostitution. Despite taking part in sexually explicit acts, societally were not considered prostitutes as they did not solicit money, only accept gifts. At the time there was no legislation on prostitution in Japan, making it hard to distinguish between prostitutes and sexual partners who received gifts.

- music and prostitution

After having been forced out of their profession's original focus, had begun to take up permanent domiciles by the late 11th century. The most fabled colonies concentrated at Eguchi along the Yodo River. The river served as the main passageway of travel from the inland sea to the capital of Heian-kyō. As the ports became busier with an increase in trade, performances became more popular. Additionally alongside the river, there were many shrines that people pilgrimaged to, many of these pilgrims took part in and supported the women. They became so popular that the describes their quarters as lining the doors of Kanzaki and Kanishima in the Settsu Province. sometimes visited the homes of patrons but customers could be entertained at dwellings similar to travelers inns located along highways called . Some even became landowners, a privilege held only by the upper echelons of Heian society.

were trained in performing songs of the genre. songs had a wide variety of topics that appealed to all audiences: Buddhist doctrines, Buddha and his disciples, Buddhist saints, mountain ascetics, woodcutters, fishermen, gamblers, potters, barrier-keepers, Shinto shrine priestesses, trees, birds, snails, dragonflies, grasshoppers, and clothing. Some of the lyrics of the come directly from sutras or vignettes of everyday life. The were sung to the beat of a small drum, but as all that remains of them is their lyrics, little is known of their rhythm or melody. The became a popular form of music in the Heian courts, which attracted many aristocratic men.

had an internal structure, headed by a headmistress called a , , or . The headmistress would have achieved her status through superior skills and immense personal charm. She could also be chosen based on wealth or personal connections, as some came from prominent families who had fallen from power. This role was often passed down hereditarily through mother and daughter. The mistress would work to protect the group members from exploitative customers, maintain group order, and distribute goods as needed amongst members.

Most transactions were conducted on the water. The average boat carried at least three members: one principal who sang while beating a small drum; an apprentice who looked after her mistress and held a large parasol; and an elderly, retired in charge of rowing the boat. The reason could openly solicit to their customers during broad daylight in front of onlookers was because they were considered talented performing artists. Without their musical qualifications, they would have been considered and had to conduct business according to certain rules. Their talent and magnetism also meant that high-level aristocrats were not afraid to admit they enjoyed the company of , and it was not unheard of for to marry into noble families.

It is also said that the in their post-Buddhist form were not only entertainers, but retained some of their previous shamanistic elements. Having sexual intercourse with an could be seen as a sacred act, as the replicated the performance of a wife. One example of this is found within Fujiwara no Akihira's portraits of a lieutenant's family:

Changes in societal perspectives

In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), many ideas changed about the ethics revolving around women. Two documents from 1261 by officials at the Kasuga shrine complained that some priests had participated in sexual relations with female pilgrims; these actions were described as evil, and, in 1285, Emperor Go-Uda prohibited men and women from mixing during worship and prevented them from staying overnight. Buddhists however were unwilling to brand women as wrongdoers, instead focusing on the trade resulting in them offering solutions for their pain. In some tales, the would take vows and achieve rebirth in paradise where others portray as incarnations of Bodhisattvas. Buddhists began to spread the idea that would violate men's control over their sexuality and therefore prevent their perusal of enlightenment. There are many testimonies from this time period that speak out against the women, one example being Prince Genji from The Tale of Genji:

Another example of the changing opinions of the comes from the poet Saigyō in Senjūshō:

This is held in direct opposition to the prior description of women by Fujiwara no Akihira in Shinsarugakuki:

and other female entertainers

are often conflated with the , but these are two separate groups of women who despite similarities are not the same. women were a part of a nomadic group that included both men and women. The men of this group worked at home while the women sang and practiced prostitution like the women. women practiced in different environments than the working mostly in interior walkways in Aohaka, Sunomata, and Nogami. One of the most well-known men from this group is Ōe no Masafusa (1041–1111), an advisor to Emperor Go-Sanjō (1032–1073) who has one of the best descriptions of women in his essay :

During the late Heian period the and were joined by the , who sang and performed a unique dance using swords. This dance was first performed in male dress. Along with other female performers, these women quickly grew patronage from elite men in the courts, one of the most famous being Emperor Go-Toba, who, during the Kamakura period, invited many women on excursions and made many of these women his concubines. In many ways, the gained more popularity than the , as the poet Fujiwara no Teika's diary says:

Changes in religious beliefs

In order to ensure business prosperity, began worshipping the god Hyukudaifu (also called Hyakudayu or Momodayu), generally represented in male form. Hyakudaifu worship is a phallic cult with objects of veneration represented by male genitalia made of wood, paper, or stone. records say women kept thousands of these objects. The cultic practice comes from the belief that praying to these objects and honoring Hyakudaifu would ensure continued success in drawing in male customers. This practice of worship, however, went beyond private observance, and often took pilgrimages to shrines famous for Hyakudaifu practices, like the Hirota Shrine and the Sumiyoshi Shrine. Coincidentally, these shrines also were popular religious destinations for aristocrats from the capital. These chance encounters led to more business for the and the beneficial results promoted the effectiveness of the Hyakudaifu cult among . This led to more offerings for the shrines and economic support for the .

Go-Shirakawa

Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127–1192) was absorbed with the art of since he was a young child. During his reign, he fell in love with an named Tamba-no-tsubone, who became one of his secondary wives. She bore him a prince and makes appearances in his memoirs. He is known for his integral connections to the art form, spending years cultivating his skills before and through his reign. It was not unusual for him to forego sleep and endure physical discomforts to master the art. His infatuation caused him to be seen as an anomaly of the court and gave him an unsavory reputation; however, this did not deter him, and he summoned singers of low social status to the imperial residence, especially , to teach them their art form. Some of these women took part in critical discussions of the ''imayō'' art form, showing pride in their profession. This created a dialogue between the upper and lower class and helped restore some status to the ''asobi'' community.

One such woman by the name of Kane was the lady-in-waiting for his mother. In the year 1157, he invited an expert by the name of Otomae, an elderly woman in her 70s, to his court. She came from the most authentic lineage, and the emperor dedicated his time to relearning the art in its entirety. She taught him for over a decade and then made him the successor of her school of . Every year after Otomae's passing, the emperor would hold a memorial service and sing at the anniversary of her death.

Go-Shirakawa compiled the largest lyric collection into a book inspired by Otomae: . The book took him two decades to compile, completing the work in 1179. The is an important document in analyzing ancient culture in Japan.  lyrics are one of the few resources that exists to this day that not only show the viewpoint of elite women, but also allow lower-class women their chance to express themselves and the world around them. The songs speak on the lives of the women and their thoughts on their profession, the people they meet, and the ideas about gender that surround them daily through stereotypes and prejudices.

Notable historical figures recorded as interacting with

* Emperor Ichijō ( 986–1011)
* Emperor Go-Sanjō ( 1068–1072)
* Emperor Fujiwara Michinaga (966–1027): Gave favor to an named Kokannon at Eguchi in the year 1000.
* Yorimichi (992–1074): Fell in love with an named Nakanogimi at Eguchi in the year 1031.
* Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127–1192)
* Minamoto Yoritomo (1147–1199)
* Fujiwara Akihira (989–1066)

See also

* Prostitution in Japan
*

References

{{reflist

Women of medieval Japan