The Lyceum () was a temple in

Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...

dedicated to Apollo Lyceus ("Apollo the wolf-god"). It was best known for the

Peripatetic school The Peripatetic school ( ) was a philosophical school founded in 335 BC by Aristotle in the Lyceum in ancient Athens. It was an informal institution whose members conducted philosophical and scientific inquiries. The school fell into decline afte ...

of philosophy founded there by

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

in 334 BC. Aristotle fled Athens in 323 BC, and the university continued to function after his lifetime under a series of leaders until the Roman general

Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (, ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman of the late Roman Republic. A great commander and ruthless politician, Sulla used violence to advance his career and his co ...

destroyed it during his assault on Athens in 86 BC. The remains of the Lyceum were discovered in modern

in 1996 in a park behind the

Hellenic Parliament The Parliament of the Hellenes (), commonly known as the Hellenic Parliament (), is the Unicameralism, unicameral legislature of Greece, located in the Old Royal Palace, overlooking Syntagma Square in Athens. The parliament is the supreme demo ...

The Lyceum

The Lyceum had been used for philosophical debate long before Aristotle. Philosophers such as Prodicus of Ceos,

Protagoras Protagoras ( ; ; )Guthrie, p. 262–263. was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and rhetorical theorist. He is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue '' Protagoras'', Plato credits him with inventing the role of the professional ...

, and numerous

rhapsodes A rhapsode () or, in modern usage, rhapsodist, refers to a classical Greek professional performer of epic poetry in the fifth and fourth centuries BC (and perhaps earlier). Rhapsodes notably performed the epics of Homer (''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey' ...

had spoken there. The most famous philosophers to teach there were

Isocrates Isocrates (; ; 436–338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, one of the ten Attic orators. Among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time, Isocrates made many contributions to rhetoric and education through his teaching and writte ...

Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...

(of

The Academy An academy is an institution of secondary education or higher learning, research, or honorary membership. Academy may also refer to: Education * Academy (English school), formerly known as city academy, type of publicly financed but independently ...

), and the best-known Athenian teacher,

Socrates Socrates (; ; – 399 BC) was a Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek philosopher from Classical Athens, Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the Ethics, ethical tradition ...

.Stenudd, Stefan
"Aristotle: His Life, Time, and Work"
Stennud. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 October 2009. In addition to military training and educational pursuits, the Lyceum also housed Athenian Assembly meetings before the

Pnyx The Pnyx (; ; , ''Pnyka'') is a hill or hillside in central Athens, the capital of Greece. Beginning as early as 507 BC (Fifth-century Athens), the Athenians gathered on the Pnyx to host their popular assemblies, thus making the hill one of the ...

became the official meeting place in the fifth century BCE. Cult practices of various groups were also held at the Lyceum. The Lyceum was named for the Greek god Apollo Lyceus. Initially a

sanctuary A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred space, sacred place, such as a shrine, protected by ecclesiastical immunity. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This seconda ...

made for worshiping Lyceus, it later became a public exercise area, with a gymnasium being constructed later on. It is unknown when this worship was introduced to Athens or when the Lyceum became the sanctuary. The Lyceum was located outside and east of Athens's city wall. The Lyceum is famous for being a center of education, but it was used for numerous other activities including Athenian assembly gatherings, cult practices, and military exercises. Because the Lyceum had to serve many purposes, the building had to have specific structures developed to accommodate all the activities. The area it was built on had many open spaces with forests. It was bound on the south by the Ilissus river and the north by the mountain Lykabettus. There were many roads that led to the Lyceum from in the city and around the city. The area had increasing numbers of buildings constructed between the sixth century BC to sixth century AD. Overall it is thought that the Lyceum spanned north possibly to modern

Kolonaki Kolonaki (, ), literally "Little Column", is an upscale neighborhood in central Athens, Greece. It is located on the southern slopes of Mount Lycabettus. Its name derives from the two metre column (located in Kolonaki Square) that defined the area ...

plateia, south as far as the

Ilissos The Ilisos or Ilisus (, ) is a river in Athens, Greece. Originally a tributary of the Cephissus (Athenian plain), Kifisos, it has been rechanneled to the sea. It is now largely channeled underground, though as of June 2019 there were plans to un ...

river. It spanned east through the modern national gardens and the city wall, close to modern Amelia's Boulevard, was the western boundary. The Lyceum has been referenced in numerous ancient works of literature including stories by

Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...

, and

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; ; 355/354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian. At the age of 30, he was elected as one of the leaders of the retreating Ancient Greek mercenaries, Greek mercenaries, the Ten Thousand, who had been ...

. Plato mentions the Lyceum in his dialogue

Lysis Lysis ( ; from Greek 'loosening') is the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic (that is, "lytic" ) mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a ...

, telling of

walking down a road from the academy to the Lyceum to meet his friends Hippothales and Ktesippos close to the Panops springhouse. Strabo mentions the springhouse in his story and mentions that it is near the Lyceum and the Ilissus river flows from above the Agrai and the Lyceum. Lastly, Xenophon says that the Lyceum served as a meeting place for the Athenian troops when the Spartans raided the city from east of the city to their encampment at Dekelaia. Within the Lyceum were many areas serving different purposes. A few were the apodyterion, dromoi, peripatetic, palastra, and gymnasium. The apodyterion was a changing room that was either part of the gymnasium or the palmistry. The dromoi and peripatoi were roads that ran from the east to the west through the modern-day

Syntagma square Syntagma Square (, , "Constitution Square") is the central square of Athens, Greece. The square is named after the Greek Constitution of 1844, Constitution that Otto of Greece, Otto, the first King of Greece, was obliged to grant after a popular a ...

and Parliament building. The palaistra was a wrestling school that was used as the scene for Plato's Euthydemus. It served three functions: a training area, an area for cult activity, and a meeting place for philosophical discussion. The gymnasium was repaired in the 330s BC, but it is thought to have been originally built by Pericles in the fifth century or Pisistratus in the sixth century. The Lyceum was used as a location for philosophical discussion before Aristotle's school was founded there.

, and

Prodicus Prodicus of Ceos (; , ''Pródikos ho Keios''; c. 465 BC – c. 395 BC) was a Greek philosopher, and part of the first generation of Sophists. He came to Athens as ambassador from Ceos, and became known as a speaker and a teacher. Plato treats h ...

of Chios travelled to the Lyceum during fifth century BC to teach, debate, and discuss their findings. Isocrates also taught rhetoric at the Lyceum during the fourth century BC. Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 BC and established a school in one of the buildings of the Lyceum, lecturing there as well as writing most of his books and collecting books for the first European library in history. Aristotle had always been a book collector and the library grew with the books Alexander sent him, he also sent plant and animal species that allows for Aristotle to open a museum. The library attracted many scholars to his school, and they become teachers and conducted research. Students were able to study any subject available at the time. His school was compared to a factory that made professionals of any kind.

Aristotle's school and library

In 335 BCE, Athens fell under

Macedon Macedonia ( ; , ), also called Macedon ( ), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, which later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal ...

ian rule and Aristotle, aged 50, returned from Asia. Upon his return, Aristotle began teaching regularly in the morning in the Lyceum and founded an official school called "The Lyceum". After morning lessons, Aristotle would frequently lecture on the grounds for the public, and manuscripts of his compiled lectures were eventually circulated. The group of scholars who followed the Aristotelian doctrine came to be known as the

Peripatetics The Peripatetic school ( ) was a philosophical school founded in 335 BC by Aristotle in the Lyceum in ancient Athens. It was an informal institution whose members conducted philosophical and scientific inquiries. The school fell into decline after ...

due to Aristotle's tendency to walk as he taught. Aristotle's main focus as a teacher was cooperative research, an idea which he founded through his

natural history Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...

work and systematic collection of philosophical works to contribute to his

library A library is a collection of Book, books, and possibly other Document, materials and Media (communication), media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or electron ...

. His students were assigned historical or scientific research projects as part of their studies. The school was also student run. The students elected a new student administrator to work with the school leadership every ten days, allowing all the students to become involved in turn. Before returning to Athens, Aristotle had been the tutor of Alexander of Macedonia, who became the great conqueror

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

. Throughout his conquests of various regions, Alexander collected plant and animal specimens for Aristotle's research, allowing Aristotle to develop the first zoo and botanical garden in recorded history. It is also suspected that Alexander donated what would be the equivalent of more than 4 million dollars to the Lyceum. In , Aristotle was forced to flee Athens with his family when the political leadership reacted against the Macedonians again and his previously published works supporting Macedonian rule left him a target. He passed on his Lyceum to

Theophrastus Theophrastus (; ; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek Philosophy, philosopher and Natural history, naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum (classical), Lyceum, the ...

and died later that year in

Chalcis Chalcis (; Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: , ), also called Chalkida or Halkida (Modern Greek: , ), is the chief city of the island of Euboea or Evia in Greece, situated on the Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from ...

, near his hometown."Aristotle's School"
at the Portland State University Greek Civilization website, Portland State University, n.d. Web. 30 October 2009.

History of Aristotle's library

Theophrastus placed a provision in his will that left the Lyceum library, which at this point included both his and Aristotle's work as well as student research, philosophical historical texts and histories of philosophy, to his supposed follower,

Neleus Neleus (; ) was a mythological king of Pylos. In some accounts, he was also counted as an Argonaut instead of his son, Nestor. Family Neleus was the son of Poseidon and Tyro, and brother of Pelias. According to Pausanias, Neleus was the son o ...

. However, the seniors of the Lyceum placed Strato as the next leader and upon his retirement from the school in the mid third century BCE, Neleus divorced the Lyceum from its library and took all of the books with him to

Skepsis Scepsis or Skepsis () was an ancient settlement in the Troad, Asia Minor that is at the present site of the village of Kurşunlutepe, near the town of Bayramiç in Turkey. The settlement is notable for being the location where the famous libra ...

Mysia Mysia (UK , US or ; ; ; ) was a region in the northwest of ancient Asia Minor (Anatolia, Asian part of modern Turkey). It was located on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara. It was bounded by Bithynia on the east, Phrygia on the southeast, Lyd ...

. Neleus was an expert on Theophrastus and Aristotle, and it may be that Theophrastus hoped he would prepare a catalogue of the 10,000 rolls of papyrus. At least some of the books seem to have been sold to the library in Alexandria. In the tenth century, a catalogue of the library revealed manuscripts by both Theophrastus and Aristotle which almost had to have been obtained from Neleus. The rest seem to have been hidden by his family, known for their ignorance. The library then disappeared for several centuries until it appears to have been bought from Neleus's heirs in the first century BCE and returned to the school. However, when

attacked Athens, the books were shipped to

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

. Throughout their travels one fifth of Aristotle's works were lost and thus are not a part of the modern Aristotelian collection. Still, what did remain of Aristotle's works and the rest of the library were arranged and edited for school use between 73 and , supposedly by

Andronicus of Rhodes Andronikos of Rhodes (; ; ) was a Greek philosopher from Rhodes who was also the scholarch (head) of the Peripatetic school. He is most famous for publishing a new edition of the works of Aristotle that forms the basis of the texts that survive t ...

, the Lyceum's eleventh leader. Since then, the remaining works have been translated and widely distributed, providing much of the modern knowledge of ancient Western philosophy.

The Lyceum after Aristotle

As head of the Lyceum, Theophrastus continued Aristotle's foci of observation, collaborative research and documentation of philosophical history, thus making his own contributions to the library, most notably as the first organizer of

botany Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...

. Though he was not a citizen of Athens (he had met Aristotle in the 340s in his homeland of

Lesbos Lesbos or Lesvos ( ) is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean Sea. It has an area of , with approximately of coastline, making it the third largest island in Greece and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, eighth largest ...

) he managed to buy land near the main gym of the Lyceum as well as several buildings for the library and additional workspace in . Theophrastus continued his own work while teaching and demonstrated his devotion to learning and education by leaving the land of the Lyceum to his friends to continue their work in education in philosophy in the non-private tradition of the school upon his death. The school was closed for a year () when all foreign philosophers were required to leave Athens. It seems to have gone into decline from c. 300, and to have more or less disintegrated sometime after when its last certain scholar,

Lyco of Troas Lyco of Troas (; , ''gen''.: ; c. 299 – c. 225 BC), son of Astyanax, was a Peripatetic philosopher and the disciple of Strato, whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripatetic school, c. 269 BC; he held that post for more than forty-four ...

, died and left the Lyceum not to one man but to all his colleagues. The Lyceum fell with the rest of Athens in . There is some thought that the Lyceum was refounded in the first century CE by

and once again flourished as a philosophical school in the second century, continuing until the

Heruli The Heruli (also Eluri, Eruli, Herules, Herulians) were one of the smaller Germanic peoples of Late Antiquity, known from records in the third to sixth centuries AD. The best recorded group of Heruli established a kingdom north of the Middle Danu ...

and

Goths The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...

sacked Athens in .

Leaders of the Lyceum

headed the Lyceum for 36 years, between Aristotle's exile from Athens in until his own death in . There is some speculation that both Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried in the gardens of the Lyceum, though no graves have been positively identified. Theophrastus was followed by

Strato of Lampsacus Strato of Lampsacus (; , – ) was a Peripatetic philosopher, and the third director ( scholarch) of the Lyceum after the death of Theophrastus. He devoted himself especially to the study of natural science, and increased the naturalistic eleme ...

, who served as head until 268.

, likely

Aristo of Ceos Aristo of Ceos (; ; ) was a Peripatetic philosopher and a native of the island of Ceos. His birthplace was the town of Ioulis. He is not to be confused with Aristo of Chios, a Stoic philosopher of the mid 3rd century BC. Aristo was a pupil of Ly ...

Critolaus Critolaus (; ''Kritolaos''; c. 200 – c. 118 BC) of Phaselis was a Greek philosopher of the Peripatetic school. He was one of three philosophers sent to Rome in 155 BC (the other two being Carneades and Diogenes of Babylon), where their doctrin ...

Diodorus of Tyre Diodorus of Tyre () was a Peripatetic philosopher, and a disciple and follower of Critolaus, whom he succeeded as the head of the Peripatetic school at Athens . He was still alive and active there in 110 BC, when Licinius Crassus, during his qu ...

and Erymneus were the next several heads of the school. Additionally, Andronicus of Rhodes served as the eleventh head.

Members of the Lyceum

At various points in the history of the Lyceum, numerous scholars and students walked its ''peripatoi'', though some of the most notable include Eudemus, a mathematical historian,

Aristoxenus Aristoxenus of Tarentum (; born 375, fl. 335 BC) was a Ancient Greece, Greek Peripatetic school, Peripatetic philosopher, and a pupil of Aristotle. Most of his writings, which dealt with philosophy, ethics and music, have been lost, but one musi ...

, who wrote works on music, and

Dicaearchus Dicaearchus of Messana (; ''Dikaiarkhos''; ), also written Dikaiarchos (), was a Greek philosopher, geographer and author. Dicaearchus was a student of Aristotle in the Lyceum. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote on geography and t ...

, a prolific writer on topics including ethics, politics, psychology and geography. Additionally, medical historian Meno, and an eventual ruler of Athens,

Demetrius of Phaleron Demetrius of Phalerum (also Demetrius of Phaleron or Demetrius Phalereus; ; c. 350 – c. 280 BC) was an Athenian orator originally from Phalerum, an ancient port of Athens. A student of Theophrastus, and perhaps of Aristotle, he was one of the ...

, spent time at the school. Demetrius of Phaleron ruled Athens as a proxy leader for a dynasty from .

Aristotle's Lyceum today

The location of Lyceum is: . During a 1996 excavation to clear space for Athens' new Museum of Modern Art, the remains of Aristotle's Lyceum were uncovered. Descriptions from the works of ancient heirs hint at the location of the grounds, speculated to be somewhere just outside the eastern boundary of ancient Athens, near the rivers

and Eridanos, and close to

Lycabettus Hill Mount Lycabettus (), also known as Lycabettos, Lykabettos or Lykavittos (, ), is a Cretaceous limestone hill in the Greek capital Athens. At 277 meters (908 feet) above sea level, its summit is the highest point in Central Athens and pine tree ...

. The excavation site is located in downtown Athens, by the junction of Rigillis and Vasilissis Sofias Streets, next to the

Athens War Museum The Athens War Museum () is the military museum of the Greek Armed Forces. It is located at the Athens city center and it is served by the Athens Metro station of Evangelismos. Established in 1975, the museum hosts collections that span the ...

and the National Conservatory. The first excavations revealed a gymnasium and wrestling area, but further work has uncovered the majority of what is believed to have withstood the erosion caused to the region by nearby architecture's placement and drainage. The buildings are definitely those of the original Lyceum, as their foundations lie on the bedrock and there are no other strata further below. Upon realizing the magnitude of the discovery, contingency plans were made for a nearby construction of the Art Museum so that it could be combined with a Lyceum outdoor museum and give visitors easy access to both. There are plans for canopies to be placed over the Lyceum remains, and the area was opened to the public in 2009.

References

Citations

Sources

* "Aristotle". Foundations of Agricultural and Extension Education. Raleigh, North Carolina: NC State University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. Fall 2009. Archived from the original on 25 November 2009. Retrieved 30 October 2009. * "Aristotle's Lyceum opens to the public". Greece National Tourist Office. 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2016. * "Aristotle's School" ermanent dead linkat the Portland State University Greek Civilization website, Portland State University, n.d. Web. 30 October 2009. * "Lyceum of Aristotle in Athens to open to public as archaeological site". Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2011. * "Lyceum." Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Credo Reference. Web. 31 October 2009. * "Lyceum." The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Credo Reference. Web. 30 October 2009. * Baez, Fernando (2008). A Universal History of the Destruction of Books. New York: Atlas and Company. pp. 58–60. . * Gross, Charles G. (29 June 2016). "Aristotle on the Brain:". The Neuroscientist. doi:10.1177/107385849500100408. * Isle, Mick (15 December 2005). Aristotle: Pioneering Philosopher and Founder of the Lyceum. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. . * Lindberg, David C. (2007)

992 Year 992 ( CMXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Worldwide * Winter – A superflare from the sun causes an Aurora Borealis, with visibility as far south as Germany and Korea. Euro ...

"4: Hellenistic Natural Philosophy". The Beginnings of Western Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . * Lynch, John Patrick (1972). Aristotle's School: a Study of a Greek Educational Institution. University of California Press. . * Morison, William (2006). "The Lyceum". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 30 October 2009. * Morison, William. "Palaestrae". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource. * Morison, William. "The Lyceum". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource. * Stenudd, Stefan, "Aristotle: His Life, Time, and Work", Stennud. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 October 2009.

External links

* {{Authority control Aristotelianism Defunct schools in Greece 4th-century BC establishments in Greece 1st-century BC disestablishments in Greece 86 BC Schools in Athens Education in classical antiquity Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens Educational institutions established in the 4th century BC Ancient libraries 330s BC establishments Gymnasiums (ancient Greece) Lyceums