Aristolochia Maxima
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''Aristolochia'' () is a large
plant Plants are the eukaryotes that form the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae; they are predominantly Photosynthesis, photosynthetic. This means that they obtain their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with c ...
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
with over 500
species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...
that is the
type genus In biological taxonomy, the type genus (''genus typica'') is the genus which defines a biological family and the root of the family name. Zoological nomenclature According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, "The name-bearin ...
of the
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
Aristolochiaceae The Aristolochiaceae () are a family, the birthwort family, of flowering plants with seven genera and about 400 known species belonging to the order Piperales. The type genus is '' Aristolochia'' L. Description They are mostly perennial, her ...
. Its members are commonly known as birthwort, pipevine or Dutchman's pipe and are widespread and occur in the most diverse climates. Some species, like '' A. utriformis'' and '' A. westlandii'', are threatened with
extinction Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its Endling, last member. A taxon may become Functional extinction, functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to Reproduction, reproduce and ...
. ''Isotrema'' is usually included here, but might be a valid genus. If so, it contains those species with a three-lobed
calyx CALYX, Inc. is a non-profit publisher of art and literature by women founded in 1976 based in Corvallis, Oregon. CALYX publishes both '' CALYX, A Journal of Art and Literature by Women'' twice a year and CALYX Books, which publishes one to three ...
.


Description

''Aristolochia'' is a genus of evergreen and deciduous
liana A liana is a long-Plant stem, stemmed Woody plant, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the Canopy (biology), canopy in search of direct sunlight. T ...
s (woody vines) and herbaceous
perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...
s. The smooth
stem Stem or STEM most commonly refers to: * Plant stem, a structural axis of a vascular plant * Stem group * Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Stem or STEM can also refer to: Language and writing * Word stem, part of a word respon ...
is erect or somewhat twining. The simple
leaves A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, ...
are alternate and
cordate Cordate is an adjective meaning ' heart-shaped' and is most typically used for: * Cordate (leaf shape), in plants * Cordate axe, a prehistoric stone tool See also * Chordate A chordate ( ) is a bilaterian animal belonging to the phyl ...
, membranous, growing on leaf stalks. There are no
stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole (botany), petiole). They are primarily found among dicots and rare among monocots. Stipules are considered part ...
s. The
flower Flowers, also known as blooms and blossoms, are the reproductive structures of flowering plants ( angiosperms). Typically, they are structured in four circular levels, called whorls, around the end of a stalk. These whorls include: calyx, m ...
s grow in the leaf
axil A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, fl ...
s. They are inflated and
globose This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary ...
at the base, continuing as a long
perianth The perianth (perigonium, perigon or perigone in monocots) is the non-reproductive part of the flower. It is a structure that forms an envelope surrounding the sexual organs, consisting of the calyx (sepals) and the corolla (petals) or tepal ...
tube, ending in a tongue-shaped, brightly colored lobe. There is no corolla. The
calyx CALYX, Inc. is a non-profit publisher of art and literature by women founded in 1976 based in Corvallis, Oregon. CALYX publishes both '' CALYX, A Journal of Art and Literature by Women'' twice a year and CALYX Books, which publishes one to three ...
is one to three whorled, and three to six toothed. The
sepal A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 Etymology The term ''sepalum'' ...
s are united (gamosepalous). There are six to 40
stamen The stamen (: stamina or stamens) is a part consisting of the male reproductive organs of a flower. Collectively, the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament ...
s in one whorl. They are united with the style, forming a
gynostemium The column, or technically the gynostemium, is a reproductive structure that can be found in several plant families: Aristolochiaceae, Orchidaceae, and Stylidiaceae. It is derived from the fusion of both male and female parts (stamens and pistil ...
. The
ovary The ovary () is a gonad in the female reproductive system that produces ova; when released, an ovum travels through the fallopian tube/ oviduct into the uterus. There is an ovary on the left and the right side of the body. The ovaries are end ...
is inferior and is four to six locular. These flowers have a specialized pollination mechanism. The plants are aromatic and their strong scent attracts insects. The inner part of the perianth tube is covered with hairs, acting as a fly-trap. These hairs then wither to release the fly, covered with pollen. The
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...
is dehiscent capsule with many endospermic seeds. The common names ''Dutchman's pipe'' and ''pipevine'' (e.g. common pipevine, '' A. durior'') are an allusion to old-fashioned
meerschaum Sepiolite, also known in English by the German name meerschaum ( , ; ; meaning " sea foam"), is a soft white clay mineral, often used to make tobacco pipes (known as meerschaum pipes). A complex magnesium silicate, a typical chemical formula f ...
pipes at one time common in the Netherlands and northern Germany. ''Birthwort'' (e.g. European birthwort '' A. clematitis'') refers to these species' flower shape, resembling a
birth canal In mammals and other animals, the vagina (: vaginas or vaginae) is the elastic, muscular reproductive organ of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulval vestibule to the cervix (neck of the uterus). The vaginal int ...
. Aristolochia was first described by the 4th c. BC Greek philosopher and botanist
Theophrastus Theophrastus (; ; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek Philosophy, philosopher and Natural history, naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum (classical), Lyceum, the ...
in his ‘’Inquiry of Plants’’ X.8.3 and the scientific name ''Aristolochia'' was developed from
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
''aristos'' (''άριστος'') "best" + ''locheia'' (''λοχεία''), ''childbirth'' or ''childbed'', relating to its known ancient use in childbirth. The Roman orator
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
records a different tradition, that the plant was named for the otherwise unknown individual with the common Greek name Aristolochos, who had learned from a dream that it was an antidote for snake bites.


Selected species

* '' Aristolochia acuminata'' Lam. * '' Aristolochia arborea'' * '' Aristolochia baetica'' * '' Aristolochia boosii'' * ''
Aristolochia bracteolata ''Aristolochia bracteolata'' also known as 'worm killer' in English due to its anthelminthic activity and trypanocidal effect, is a perennial herb growing from 10–60 cm tall. The plant is important in traditional medicine in Africa, India ...
'' Lam. – worm killer * '' Aristolochia californica'' Torr. – California pipevine, California Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia cauliflora'' Ule * '' Aristolochia chilensis'' Bridges ex Lindl. – Chilean fox's ears * ''
Aristolochia clematitis ''Aristolochia clematitis'', or European birthwort, is a twining herbaceous plant in the family Aristolochiaceae, which is native to Europe. The leaves are heart shaped and the flowers are pale yellow and tubular in form. The plant seeks light ...
'' L. – European birthwort * '' Aristolochia contorta'' * '' Aristolochia cucurbitifolia'' Hayata * '' Aristolochia cucurbitoides'' C.F.Liang * '' Aristolochia delavayi'' Franch. * '' Aristolochia didyma'' – ''yawar panga'' * ''
Aristolochia durior ''Bignonia capreolata'' is a vine commonly referred to as crossvine. The common name refers to the cross-shaped pattern revealed when the stem is cut; this pattern results from four radial wedges of phloem embedded within the stem's xylem. It i ...
'' (= ''A. macrophylla'') – common Dutchman's pipe, common pipevine * '' Aristolochia eriantha'' * '' Aristolochia esperanzae'' Kuntze * '' Aristolochia fimbriata'' – white-veined Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia gibertii'' * '' Aristolochia gigantea'' Mart. – giant pelican flower, Brazilian Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia gorgona'' * '' Aristolochia grandiflora'' Sw. – pelican flower * '' Aristolochia hainanensis''
Merr. Elmer Drew Merrill (October 15, 1876 – February 25, 1956) was an American botanist and taxonomist. He spent more than twenty years in the Philippines where he became a recognized authority on the flora of the Asia-Pacific region. Through ...
* '' Aristolochia indica'' L. * ''
Aristolochia labiata ''Aristolochia labiata'', the mottled Dutchman's pipe or rooster flower, is an ornamental plant which is native to Brazil. References External links labiata Oikopleuridae is a family of larvacean tunicates. A comparatively species-ric ...
'' Willd. – mottled Dutchman's pipe, rooster flower * '' Aristolochia lindneri'' * ''
Aristolochia littoralis ''Aristolochia littoralis'', the calico flower or elegant Dutchman's pipe, is a species of evergreen vine belonging to the family Aristolochiaceae. Etymology The scientific name ''Aristolochia'' was developed from Ancient Greek + , as in ...
'' D.Parodi – elegant Dutchman's pipe, calico flower * '' Aristolochia longa'' – long aristolochia, sarrasine * ''
Aristolochia macrophylla ''Aristolochia macrophylla'', Dutchman's pipe or pipevine, is a perennial vine native to the eastern United States. ''A. macrophylla'' belongs to the plant family Aristolochiaceae and is found primarily along the Cumberland Mountains and Blue Rid ...
'' Lam. * '' Aristolochia macroura'' * '' Aristolochia maxima'' Jacq. – Florida Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia obliqua'' S.M.Hwang * ''
Aristolochia paecilantha ''Aristolochia delavayi'', known as the party-colored birthwort, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. Description Perennial. Stems striate, prostrate or ascending. Leaves petiolate, broadly cordate at base; limb triang ...
'' * ''
Aristolochia pistolochia ''Aristolochia pistolochia'' is a herbaceous plant in the family Aristolochiaceae endemic to Mediterranean areas across southwest Europe. Description ''Aristolochia paucinervis'' is a perennial geophyte plant. Its rhizome is formed by numerous ...
'' L. * '' Aristolochia pontica'' * '' Aristolochia quangbinhensis'' * '' Aristolochia ringens'' Vahl – gaping Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia rotunda'' L. – smearwort, round birthwort, English mercury, mercury goosefoot, allgood, tola bona, fat hen – type species * ''
Aristolochia scytophylla ''Aristolochia scytophylla'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is Endemism, endemic to China. References

Aristolochia, scytophylla Endemic flora of China Endangered flora of Asia Taxonomy articles create ...
'' S.M.Hwang & D.L.Chen * ''
Aristolochia sempervirens ''Aristolochia sempervirens'' is a species of perennial plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is found in the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean Basin, notably in Crete Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is t ...
'' L. * ''
Aristolochia serpentaria ''Aristolochia serpentaria'' is a species of perennial flowering plant in the Aristolochiaceae (birthwort) family. The species is commonly known as Virginia snakeroot and is native to eastern North America, from Connecticut to southern Michigan ...
'' L. – Virginia snakeroot * '' Aristolochia sipho'' L'Hér. * '' Aristolochia stevensii '' Barringer * ''
Aristolochia tagala ''Aristolochia tagala'' is commonly known as Indian birthwort and locally as Dutchman's pipe. Distribution It is widely distributed: the distribution is from the Himalaya to Sri Lanka through South East Asia (includes Myanmar, Indonesia, Indoch ...
'' – Indian birthwort * '' Aristolochia thwaitesii'' Hook * '' Aristolochia tomentosa'' Sims – woolly pipevine, woolly Dutchman's pipe * '' Aristolochia tricaudata'' * '' Aristolochia trilobata'' * '' Aristolochia tuberosa'' C.F.Liang & S.M.Hwang * ''
Aristolochia utriformis ''Aristolochia utriformis'' is a species of plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is endemic to China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding ...
'' S.M.Hwang * '' Aristolochia watsonii'' Woot. & Standl. – Watson's Dutchman's pipe * ''
Aristolochia westlandii ''Aristolochia westlandii'' is a species of plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is found in China and Hong Kong, in valley forests in Guangdong Province ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation ...
'' Hemsl. * '' Aristolochia yunnanensis'' Franch.


Swallowtail butterflies

Many species of ''Aristolochia'' are eaten by the caterpillar larvae of swallowtail butterflies, thus making the larvae and butterflies unpalatable to most
predator Predation is a biological interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common List of feeding behaviours, feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation ...
s. Lepidoptera feeding on pipevines include:
Choreutidae Choreutidae, or metalmark moths, are a family of insects in the lepidopteran order whose relationships have been long disputed. It was placed previously in the superfamily Yponomeutoidea in family Glyphipterigidae and in superfamily Sesioide ...
*'' Millieria''
leaf miner A leaf miner is any one of numerous species of insects in which the larval stage lives in, and eats, the leaf tissue of plants. The vast majority of leaf-mining insects are moths (Lepidoptera), sawflies (Symphyta, a paraphyletic group which ...
Papilionidae Swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful Butterfly, butterflies in the family Papilionidae, and include over 550 species. Though the majority are tropical, members of the family inhabit every continent except Antarctica. The family includ ...
* False Apollo (''Archon apollinus'') – known from numerous pipevine species *'' Bhutanitis'' ** Bhutan glory (''B. lidderdalii'') – known from ''A. griffithi'', ''A. kaempferii'', ''A. mandshuriensis'' and maybe others ** Chinese three-tailed swallowtail (''B. thaidina'') – known from ''A. moupinensis'' *
Troidini Troidini is a tribe of swallowtail butterflies that consists of some 135 species in 12 genera. Members of this tribe are superlatively large among butterflies (in terms of both wingspan and surface area) and are often strikingly coloured. Gener ...
** Great windmill (''Atrophaneura dasarada'') – only known from ''A. griffithi'' ** Common batwing (''Atrophaneura varuna'') – only known from ''A. kaempferi'' **'' Troides plateni'' – only known from Indian birthwort (''A. tagala'') **
Cairns birdwing ''Ornithoptera euphorion'', the Cairns birdwing, is a species of birdwing butterfly endemic to Queensland, and is Australia's largest endemic butterfly species. Other common names include Cooktown birdwing and northern birdwing.Braby (2004) p. 12 ...
(''Ornithoptera euphorion'') **
Richmond birdwing ''Ornithoptera richmondia'', the Richmond birdwing, is a species of birdwing butterfly that is endemic to Australia. It is the second smallest of the birdwing species, the smallest being ''Ornithoptera meridionalis''. Distribution Historically, ...
(''O. richmondia'') ** Paradise birdwing (''O. paradisea'') **Rajah Brooke's birdwing (''
Trogonoptera brookiana ''Trogonoptera'' is a genus of birdwing butterflies from the rainforests of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Natuna, Sumatra, Palawan, and various small islands west of Sumatra. Their large size and stunning colors makes them highly prized by ...
'') – only known from ''A. foveolata'' ** Magellan birdwing (''T. magellanus'') – known on '' A. cucurbitifolia'', ''A. ovatifolia'', ''A. zollingeriana'' and maybe others **
Pipevine swallowtail ''Battus philenor'', the pipevine swallowtail or blue swallowtail, Retrieved April 19, 2018. is a swallowtail butterfly found in North America and Central America. This butterfly is black with iridescent-blue hindwings. They are found in many dif ...
(''Battus philenor'') – known on '' A. macrophylla'', Virginia snakeroot ('' A. serpentaria'') and others **
Polydamas Swallowtail ''Battus polydamas'', also known as the gold rim swallowtail, the Polydamas swallowtail or the tailless swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of ' ...
(''Battus polydamas'') **''
Parides ''Parides'', commonly called cattlehearts, is a genus of swallowtail butterfly, swallowtail butterflies in the family (biology), family Papilionidae. They are found in the Americas (Neotropical realm). The host plants of their caterpillars are '' ...
'' genus of swallowtails, also called cattlehearts * Zerynthiini **'' Allancastria caucasica'' ** Eastern Festoon (''Allancastria cerisyi'') – known from numerous pipevine species ** Southern Festoon (''Zerynthia polyxena'') – known from numerous pipevine species ** Spanish Festoon (''Zerynthia rumina'') – known from numerous pipevine species In Australia the invasive ''
Aristolochia littoralis ''Aristolochia littoralis'', the calico flower or elegant Dutchman's pipe, is a species of evergreen vine belonging to the family Aristolochiaceae. Etymology The scientific name ''Aristolochia'' was developed from Ancient Greek + , as in ...
'' is fatal to the caterpillars of ''Ornithoptera euphorion'' and ''O. richmondia'' and threatens to displace their proper host, '' A. tagala''.


Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity

The species ''
Aristolochia clematitis ''Aristolochia clematitis'', or European birthwort, is a twining herbaceous plant in the family Aristolochiaceae, which is native to Europe. The leaves are heart shaped and the flowers are pale yellow and tubular in form. The plant seeks light ...
'' was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient
Egyptians Egyptians (, ; , ; ) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian identity is closely tied to Geography of Egypt, geography. The population is concentrated in the Nile Valley, a small strip of cultivable land stretchi ...
,
Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
and
Romans Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
, and on until the
Early Modern The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...
era; it also plays a role in
traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medicine, alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence ...
. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the
doctrine of signatures The doctrine of signatures, also known as the doctrine of correspondences, states that herbs or animals have physical or behavioral traits that mirror the ailment it can successfully treat. Theological justifications, such as that of botanist Wil ...
held that ''birthwort'' was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the
placenta The placenta (: placentas or placentae) is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between ...
, as noted by the herbalist
Dioscurides Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic pharmacopeia on her ...
in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, ''Aristolochia'' is known to contain the lethal toxin
aristolochic acid Aristolochic acids () are a family of carcinogenic, mutagenic, and nephrotoxic phytochemicals commonly found in the flowering plant family Aristolochiaceae (birthworts). Aristolochic acid (AA) I is the most abundant one. The family Aristolochiace ...
. The ''
Bencao Gangmu The ''Bencao gangmu'', known in English as the ''Compendium of Materia Medica'' or ''Great Pharmacopoeia'', is an encyclopedic gathering of medicine, natural history, and Chinese herbology compiled and edited by Li Shizhen and published in the ...
'', compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 "drugs" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of ''Aristolochia''. For 400 years, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the ''Bencao Gangmu'' was replaced by modern ''Materia Medica'', the most comprehensive source being ''Zhong Hua Ben Cao'' (''Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica''), published in 1999. The ''Encyclopedia'' lists 23 species of ''Aristolochia'', though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following ''Aristolochia'' herbs: ''A. manshuriensis'' (stems), ''A. fangchi'' (root), ''A. debilis'' (root and fruit), and '' A. contorta'' (fruit), two of which (''madouling'' and ''qingmuxiang'') appear in the 2005
Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China A pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea (or the typographically obsolete rendering, ''pharmacopœia''), meaning "drug-making", in its modern technical sense, is a reference work containing directions for the identification of compound med ...
. In traditional Chinese medicine ''Aristolochia'' species are used for certain forms of acute
arthritis Arthritis is a general medical term used to describe a disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, Joint effusion, swelling, and decreased range of motion of ...
and
edema Edema (American English), also spelled oedema (British English), and also known as fluid retention, swelling, dropsy and hydropsy, is the build-up of fluid in the body's tissue (biology), tissue. Most commonly, the legs or arms are affected. S ...
. Despite the toxic properties of aristolochic acid, naturopaths claim that a decoction of birthwort stimulates the production and increases the activity of
white blood cell White blood cells (scientific name leukocytes), also called immune cells or immunocytes, are cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign entities. White blood cells are genera ...
s, or that pipevines contain a
disinfectant A disinfectant is a chemical substance or compound used to inactivate or destroy microorganisms on inert surfaces. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than ...
which assists in
wound healing Wound healing refers to a living organism's replacement of destroyed or damaged tissue by newly produced tissue. In undamaged skin, the epidermis (surface, epithelial layer) and dermis (deeper, connective layer) form a protective barrier again ...
. Also, ''
Aristolochia bracteolata ''Aristolochia bracteolata'' also known as 'worm killer' in English due to its anthelminthic activity and trypanocidal effect, is a perennial herb growing from 10–60 cm tall. The plant is important in traditional medicine in Africa, India ...
'' is colloquially known as "worm killer" due to supposed
antihelminthic Anthelmintics or antihelminthics are a group of antiparasitic drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them without causing significant damage to the host. They may also ...
activity. ''Aristolochia'' taxa have also been used as reptile repellents. '' A. serpentaria'' (Virginia snakeroot) is thus named because the root was used to treat snakebite, as "so offensive to these reptiles, that they not only avoid the places where it grows, but even flee from the traveler who carries a piece of it in his hand". ''A. pfeiferi'', ''A. rugosa'', and ''A. trilobata'' are also used in folk medicine to treat snakebites.


Toxicity and carcinogenicity

In 1993, a series of end-stage renal disease cases was reported from
Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
associated with a weight loss treatment, where ''
Stephania tetrandra ''Stephania tetrandra'' is a herbaceous perennial vine of the family Menispermaceae native to China and Taiwan. It grows from a short, woody caudex, climbing to a height of around three meters. The leaves are arranged spirally on the stem, and ar ...
'' in a herbal preparation was suspected of being replaced with '' Aristolochia fangchi''. More than 105 patients were identified with
nephropathy Kidney disease, or renal disease, technically referred to as nephropathy, is damage to or disease of a kidney In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organ (anatomy), organs that are a multilobar, multipap ...
following the ingestion of this preparation from the same clinic from 1990 to 1992. Many required
renal transplantation Kidney transplant or renal transplant is the organ transplant of a kidney into a patient with end-stage kidney disease (ESRD). Kidney transplant is typically classified as deceased-donor (formerly known as cadaveric) or living-donor transplantati ...
or
dialysis Dialysis may refer to: * Dialysis (chemistry), a process of separating molecules in solution **Electrodialysis, used to transport salt ions from one solution to another through an ion-exchange membrane under the influence of an applied electric po ...
. ''Aristolochia'' is a component of some Chinese
herbal medicine Herbal medicine (also called herbalism, phytomedicine or phytotherapy) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. Scientific evidence for the effectiveness of many herbal treatments ...
s. ''Aristolochia'' has been shown to be both a potent carcinogen and kidney toxin. Herbal compounds containing ''Aristolochia'' are classified as a
Group 1 Group 1 may refer to: * Alkali metal, a chemical element classification for Alkali metal * Group 1 (motorsport), a regulation set of the FIA for series-production touring cars used in motorsport. * Group One Thoroughbred horse races, the leading e ...
carcinogen A carcinogen () is any agent that promotes the development of cancer. Carcinogens can include synthetic chemicals, naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, and biologic agents such as viruse ...
by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC; ) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. Its role is to conduct and coordinate research into the causes of cancer. It also cance ...
. Epidemiological and laboratory studies have identified ''Aristolochia'' to be a dangerous kidney toxin; ''Aristolochia'' has been shown to be associated with more than 100 cases of kidney failure. Furthermore, it appears as if contamination of
grain A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached husk, hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and ...
with European birthwort (''A. clematitis'') is a cause of
Balkan nephropathy The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
, a severe renal disease occurring in parts of
southeast Europe Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe is a geographical sub-region of Europe, consisting primarily of the region of the Balkans, as well as adjacent regions and Archipelago, archipelagos. There are overlapping and conflicting definitions of t ...
. In 2001 the UK government banned the sale, supply and importation of any medicinal product consisting of or containing a plant of the genus Aristolochia. Several other plant species that do not cause themselves kidney poisoning, but which were commonly substituted with Aristolochia in the remedies, were prohibited in the same order. Aristolochic acid was linked to aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in a Taiwanese study in 2012. In 2013, two studies reported that aristolochic acid is a strong carcinogen. Whole-genome and exome analysis of individuals with a known exposure to aristolochic acid revealed a higher rate of somatic mutation in DNA.
Metabolite In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism. The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, c ...
s of aristolochic acid enter the cell nucleus and form adducts on
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of al ...
. While adducts on the transcribed DNA strand within genes are detected and removed by
transcription-coupled repair Nucleotide excision repair is a DNA repair mechanism. DNA damage occurs constantly because of chemicals (e.g. intercalating agents), radiation and other mutagens. Three excision repair pathways exist to repair single stranded DNA damage: Nucleot ...
, the adducts on the non-transcribed strand remain and eventually cause DNA replication errors. These adducts have a preference for
adenine Adenine (, ) (nucleoside#List of nucleosides and corresponding nucleobases, symbol A or Ade) is a purine nucleotide base that is found in DNA, RNA, and Adenosine triphosphate, ATP. Usually a white crystalline subtance. The shape of adenine is ...
bases, and cause A-to-T
transversion Transversion, in molecular biology, refers to a point mutation in DNA in which a single (two ring) purine ( A or G) is changed for a (one ring) pyrimidine ( T or C), or vice versa. A transversion can be spontaneous, or it can be caused by ioniz ...
s. Furthermore, these metabolites appear to show a preference for CAG and TAG sequences.


Garden history

Due to their spectacular flowers, several species are used as
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or ''garden plants'' are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars th ...
s, notably the hardy ''A. durior'' of eastern North America, which was one of
John Bartram John Bartram (June 3, 1699 – September 22, 1777) was an American botanist, horticulturist, and explorer, based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for most of his career. Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus said he was the "greatest natu ...
's many introductions to British gardens; in 1761 Bartram sent seeds he had collected in the
Ohio River Valley The Ohio River () is a river in the United States. It is located at the boundary of the Midwestern and Southern United States, flowing in a southwesterly direction from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to its mouth on the Mississippi River in Cairo, ...
to Peter Collinson in London, and Collinson gave them to the nurseryman James Gordon at Mile End to raise. The vine was soon adopted for creating for arbors "a canopy impenetrable to the rays of the sun, or moderate rain," as Dr John Sims noted in ''
The Botanical Magazine ''The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed'', is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine''. Each of the issue ...
'', 1801.Quoted in Coats (1964) 1992.


See also

* ''
Nepenthes aristolochioides ''Nepenthes aristolochioides'' is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sumatra, where it grows at elevations of 1800–2500 m above sea level. It has an extremely unusual pitcher morphology, having an almost vertical opening to its traps.McP ...
'', a
carnivorous plant Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods, and occasionally small mammals and birds. They have adapted to grow in waterlo ...
with pitchers resembling ''Aristolochia'' flowers *
Opodeldoc Opodeldoc is a medical plaster or liniment invented, or at least named, by the German Renaissance physician Paracelsus in the 1500s. In modern form opodeldoc is a mixture of soap in ethanol, alcohol, to which camphor and sometimes a number of herb ...


Footnotes


References

* (2006)
Known and Probable Carcinogens (Including Industrial Processes, Occupational Exposures, Infectious Agents, Chemicals, and Radiation).
Version of 02/03/2006. Retrieved 2007-NOV-12. * * * *


Further reading

*


External links

* Pictures o

an

{{Authority control Vines Piperales genera Abortifacients Medicinal plants IARC Group 1 carcinogens