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In
Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
's ''
Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...
'', Argos (; ), sometimes referred to as Argus, is the legendary faithful dog of
Odysseus In Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology, Odysseus ( ; , ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; ), is a legendary Greeks, Greek king of Homeric Ithaca, Ithaca and the hero of Homer's Epic poetry, epic poem, the ''Odyssey''. Od ...
. Bred to be a
hunting dog A hunting dog is a Dog, canine that hunts with or for hunters. There are several different Dog type, types of hunting dog developed for various tasks and purposes. The major categories of hunting dog include hounds, terriers, cur type dogs, and ...
before Odysseus leaves for the
Trojan War The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology that took place around the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. The war was waged by the Achaeans (Homer), Achaeans (Ancient Greece, Greeks) against the city of Troy after Paris (mytho ...
, Argos is neglected after Odysseus is presumed dead. Twenty years later, Odysseus returns to Ithaca and finds him lying in piles of manure, immobile from old age and neglect, and infested with parasites. When Argos sees Odysseus, he immediately drops his ears, wags his tail and recognizes him. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus cannot greet his dog without revealing his identity, but secretly weeps. Upon seeing his master return home, Argos dies. The Argos scene is among the most well-known episodes in the ''Odyssey'' and scholars of
classical literature Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, ''classics'' traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek and Roman literature and their original languages, ...
have commented on its structure, meaning, and literary value. Argos has been described as a symbol of faithfulness and a metaphor for the decline of Odysseus and his household () within the larger narrative of the poem. Argos's death is signaled using language typically reserved for the noble deaths of warriors, and a periphrastic construction is used to focalize the narrative as if told from his perspective.


Name

The name "Argos" () is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective (), meaning literally 'shining white, brilliant', with a secondary metaphorical meaning of 'quick, agile'; this
semantic change Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from ...
is found elsewhere in the
Indo-European languages The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...
. In
Homeric Greek Homeric Greek is the form of the Greek language that was used in the ''Iliad'', ''Odyssey'', and ''Homeric Hymns''. It is a literary dialect of Ancient Greek consisting mainly of an archaic form of Ionic, with some Aeolic forms, a few from Ar ...
, this appellation was commonly applied to quick dogs. The movement of the Ancient Greek accent from the final syllable to the preceding one is typical of
proper noun A proper noun is a noun that identifies a single entity and is used to refer to that entity ('' Africa''; ''Jupiter''; '' Sarah''; ''Walmart'') as distinguished from a common noun, which is a noun that refers to a class of entities (''continent, ...
s. Robert S. P. Beekes translates his name literally as 'the nimble one'. The name is derived from the
Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...
word – a zero-grade derivative of 'white, glittering' – with the second being dropped through dissimilation. The name is
cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the s ...
with
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
'silver' and Hittite () 'white, bright', among others. It is etymologically related to the (), the ship used by
Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Med ...
and the
Argonauts The Argonauts ( ; ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, ''Argo'', named after it ...
in the story of the Golden Fleece; the ship's name also refers to its swiftness. Argos is also the name of the hundred-eyed watchman in other Greek myths, Argos Panoptes (; ); one mythological tradition purports that Argos Panoptes was himself originally a watchdog.


In the ''Odyssey''

In the ''
Odyssey The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...
'',
Odysseus In Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology, Odysseus ( ; , ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; ), is a legendary Greeks, Greek king of Homeric Ithaca, Ithaca and the hero of Homer's Epic poetry, epic poem, the ''Odyssey''. Od ...
begins his return to Ithaca after ten years of fighting in the
Trojan War The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology that took place around the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. The war was waged by the Achaeans (Homer), Achaeans (Ancient Greece, Greeks) against the city of Troy after Paris (mytho ...
. His attempts to reach his home last another ten years, during which his family and friends believe him to be dead and various suitors attempt to marry his wife
Penelope Penelope ( ; Ancient Greek: Πηνελόπεια, ''Pēnelópeia'', or , ''Pēnelópē'') is a character in Homer's ''Odyssey.'' She was the queen of Homer's Ithaca, Ithaca and was the daughter of Spartan king Icarius (Spartan), Icarius and ...
. Upon his return, Odysseus is disguised as an elderly beggar by
Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretism, syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarde ...
and reveals his true identity to his son, Telemachus. Together, they agree that Penelope's suitors must be killed. Odysseus travels with his swineherd slave
Eumaeus In Greek mythology, Eumaeus (; Ancient Greek: Εὔμαιος ''Eumaios'' meaning 'searching well') was Odysseus' slave, swineherd, and friend. His father, Ctesius, son of Ormenus, was king of an island called Syra (present-day Syros in the Gree ...
, to whom he has not revealed his identity, towards Odysseus's palace. As they are traveling, Argos awakes to the sound of Odysseus's voice. It is revealed that Odysseus had raised him as a
hunting dog A hunting dog is a Dog, canine that hunts with or for hunters. There are several different Dog type, types of hunting dog developed for various tasks and purposes. The major categories of hunting dog include hounds, terriers, cur type dogs, and ...
and, before Odysseus had left for the war, Argos was used to hunt deer,
wild goat The wild goat (''Capra aegagrus'') is a wild goat species, inhabiting forests, shrublands and rocky areas ranging from Turkey and the Caucasus in the west to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. It has been listed as near threaten ...
s, and
hare Hares and jackrabbits are mammals belonging to the genus ''Lepus''. They are herbivores and live Solitary animal, solitarily or in pairs. They nest in slight depressions called forms, and their young are precociality, able to fend for themselves ...
s by other young men, but had never gotten to hunt with him. After Odysseus left for
Troy Troy (/; ; ) or Ilion (; ) was an ancient city located in present-day Hisarlik, Turkey. It is best known as the setting for the Greek mythology, Greek myth of the Trojan War. The archaeological site is open to the public as a tourist destina ...
, Argos was neglected and, as Odysseus walks by, is lying in deep piles of
manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nut ...
and riddled with ticks. Once Argos recognizes Odysseus, he drops his ears and begins to wag his tail, but his condition leaves him unable to get up and greet Odysseus; Odysseus begins to cry, wiping a tear from his eyes. He asks Eumaeus about the dog, commenting on his beautiful form, and wonders if he was once as great as his form suggests he was. Eumaeus replies that Argos belonged to Odysseus and was once a great hunting dog who caught everything he tracked. He recounts that after Odysseus had been presumed dead, no one took care of Argos, and Eumaeus curses the servants for their negligence. As the two men enter the palace, where the suitors are, Argos dies.


Analysis

The reunion scene between Odysseus and Argos is among the most famous episodes in the ''Odyssey'' and has been described as one of the most emotional scenes in
Western literature Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent weste ...
. There are three major elements of the scene to which scholarly attention has largely been paid: its placement in relation to other events in the poem, its emotional gravity (
pathos Pathos appeals to the emotions and ideals of the audience and elicits feelings that already reside in them. ''Pathos'' is a term most often used in rhetoric (in which it is considered one of the three modes of persuasion, alongside ethos and ...
), and its employment as a metaphor for Odysseus and the state of his household ().


Narrative function in the ''Odyssey''

Argos's scene is placed in the middle of the seventeenth book of the poem and is a part of its larger visitation narrative, where Odysseus goes to meet his wife's suitors, and both the scene and the larger narrative are an inversion of the expected " hospitality ritual". The appearance of Argos begins a series of anagnorises, and is the only anagnorisis in the ''Odyssey'' where two characters recognize each other immediately and simultaneously. Argos is the only member of Odysseus's household to recognize him without divine assistance or evidence provided by Odysseus himself. The revelation by the narrator of Argos's death uses the keynote phrase "in the twentieth year" (, ), which is usually reserved for when Odysseus reveals himself to another character or to signal the consequences of his absence. The narrative language depersonalizes Odysseus as "his master" (), using this periphrastic construction in order to present the narrative as if composed from Argos's perspective. Some authors, such as Bernhard Frank and Maurice Bowra, have argued that the scene signals Odysseus's "true moment of homecoming" (), since it displays both how long he has been gone and how loyalty and affection have remained. An overarching purpose of the scene is to create "tension through retardation"; that is, the context in which the story takes place is given more narrative tension by delaying the moment which would relieve that tension for the audience. In this case, this narrative device stalls Odysseus from confronting his wife's suitors in his own home.


As a symbol of Odysseus and his

Scholars have emphasized the analogous relationship between Argos and Odysseus, as well as between Argos and Odysseus's . Argos is a major aspect of the "watchdog motif" found throughout the ''Odyssey'', where watchdogs are used as symbols for something else; Argos represents the dilapidation of Odysseus's . Elements of Argos's story echo, sometimes word for word, parts of the poem related to Odysseus's son Telemachus. The poem states that Odysseus raised Argos, but "got no joy of him" (, ) since he left for Troy shortly thereafter. The exact same phrase is used in the previous book to describe the relationship between Odysseus and Telemachus, leading the audience to examine the relationships in parallel. Several authors have written that, in some ways, Argos represents Odysseus himself. Argos lies in piles of manure, which mirrors Odysseus's beggar disguise, and his body is infested with parasites, which mirrors how Odysseus views his wife's suitors as "
vermin Vermin (colloquially varmint(s) or varmit(s)) are pests or nuisance animals that spread diseases and destroy crops, livestock, and property. Since the term is defined in relation to human activities, which species are included vary by regi ...
" infecting his . Both Odysseus and Argos have their glorious pasts contrasted with their current poor conditions. In his response to Odysseus's inquiry about the dog, Eumaeus frames Argos as an analog for Odysseus himself; Argos's physical prowess and excellence in hunting are ascribed to Odysseus earlier in the poem and in the ''
Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...
''. has argued that the episode with Argos contains parallels to the scene between Odysseus and his father Laertes seven books later. Although still mobile, Laertes no longer travels into town and awaits only his son's return to Ithaca. Grief-ridden, he debases himself by wearing shoddy clothing and doing slave labor, mirroring the tick-ridden Argos. Laertes wears a goat-leather helmet ( [], which is derived from [] 'dog') and suffers miserably like Argos in Odysseus's absence.


Pathos

Scholars have identified several literary devices which amplify the emotional impact (
pathos Pathos appeals to the emotions and ideals of the audience and elicits feelings that already reside in them. ''Pathos'' is a term most often used in rhetoric (in which it is considered one of the three modes of persuasion, alongside ethos and ...
) of Argos on the story. Odysseus's recognition of Argos's combined faithfulness and destitution leads to his emotional response; the inability of both to act on their emotions – Argos, unable to walk, and Odysseus, unable to acknowledge him – encourages the audience to sympathize with both. The language surrounding Argos treats him as a human character; he is given a name and an introduction. Argos's friendly behavior also invites the audience to experience anxious concern for Odysseus; if Eumaeus notices Argos behaving friendly towards an ostensible stranger, it might raise his suspicions as to Odysseus's identity before he is ready to reveal it. Argos's inability to move towards Odysseus thus provides the audience with relief – as Argos is unable to unwittingly betray his master's disguise – and further emotional turmoil, since the reunion cannot be fully consummated. The narrative contrasts Argos's past as an unequaled hunting dog with his current powerlessness, mirroring Odysseus's condition prior to confronting his wife's suitors which creates an
atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gases that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosph ...
of uncertainty around the possibility of Odysseus's chances of success against the suitors. Throughout the ''Odyssey'', Odysseus holds back or hides his tears from those around him, but upon seeing Argos, he cries; although the tears are hidden from Eumaeus, they are not hidden from the audience.


Death

When Argos dies, the narrative of the poem uses language reserved for the noble deaths of warriors – the "solemn death
formula In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a ''chemical formula''. The informal use of the term ''formula'' in science refers to the general construct of a relationship betwe ...
" – which elevates Argos as a noble and heroic figure. Argos's death fulfills Odysseus's hopes for his own death, adumbrated in book seven: "And let life leave me when I have once more seen my property, my servants, and my great high-roofed house." The timing of his death – immediately after seeing Odysseus – demonstrates his unwavering fidelity to his master and serves to further the pathos of the scene and Argos's inclusion in the larger narrative. Bernhard Frank argues, using Argos's destitution as a representation of Odysseus's, that Argos's death symbolizes the end of Odysseus's decline; Odysseus's restraint demonstrates his resolve to complete his mission, "thereby released from his weak self-image and the dangers of sentimentality ..he is now free to move on".


See also

* Man's best friend (phrase) * Greek mythology in popular culture * Cultural depictions of dogs *
Human–canine bond The human–canine bond is rooted in the domestication of the dog, which began occurring through their long-term association with Hunter-gatherer, hunter-gatherers more than 30,000–40,000 years ago. The earliest known relationship between Dog, d ...
* List of fictional dogs *
List of individual dogs The following is a list of individual dogs. Actors Advertising * Alex the dog, Banjo, portrayed Carlos, an Irish Setter-Golden Retriever mix and star of Stroh Brewery Company, Stroh's beer advertising in the 1980s. Also mentioned in the 1 ...


References


Notes


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * *


External links

* {{Characters in the Odyssey Characters in the Odyssey Mythological dogs