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Argon Pedion () is the geological name of a "closed
karst Karst () is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and Dolomite (rock), dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. Ther ...
basin" in the Arcadian highlands in the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
peninsula of southern
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
. The first known appearance of this name was in a publication by the ancient geographer Pausanias (110–180 AD). He called it untilled plain, because the grassland and acres may be flooded beyond the time when annual vegetation starts. When the winter rains were very heavy, floods can even turn the plain into a temporary lake. Intensive
karst Karst () is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and Dolomite (rock), dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. Ther ...
formation (drainage in underground waterways of limestone layers) prevents the formation of a permanent lake. In rare cases, even today, modern technologies can not prevent flooding.


Geography


Environment

The prefecture Arcadia (Νομός Αρκαδίας) is almost entirely rural and mountainous (Arcadian Plateau). The villages are scattered all over the land; there are only very few cities, even the largest city
Tripoli, Greece Tripoli (; ) is a city in the central part of the Peloponnese, in Greece. It is the capital of the Peloponnese region as well as of the regional unit of Arcadia. The homonymous municipality had 44,165 inhabitants in 2021. Etymology In the Mid ...
, with ca. 30000 inhabitants (without district and hinterland) is relatively small. Steep mountains and
forest A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense ecological community, community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, ...
s are scarcely populated. Extensive forests dominate in the central north (
Mainalo Mainalo (, ; ) is the tallest mountain in the Menalon highlands of the Peloponnese, and is located in Arcadia. The mountain's highest point, known as both ''Profitis Ilias'' and ''Ostrakina'', at a height of , is the highest point in Arcadia. ...
) and the central-south, following the prefectures southern border which marks the mountain chain of the
Parnon Parnon or Parnonas () or Malevos (Μαλεβός) is a mountain range, or massif, on the east of the Laconian plain and the Evrotas Valley. It is visible from Athens above the top of the Argive mountains. The western part is in the Laconia pre ...
, way down to the coast of the
Argolic Gulf The Argolic Gulf (), also known as the Gulf of Argolis, is a gulf of the Aegean Sea off the east coast of the Peloponnese, Greece. It is about 50 km long and 30 km wide. Its main port is Nafplio, at its northwestern end. At the entrance ...
. Valleys divide the mountain chains, but they are important draining paths only from November to April, while many brooks even dry up totally. The size of the valleys indicate, there were larger water quantities in earlier time periods. On steeply inclined slopes the topsoil is often drastically eroded, only degenerated
shrubland Shrubland, scrubland, scrub, brush, or bush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominance (ecology), dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbaceous plant, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally o ...
prevails.
Alluvial Alluvium (, ) is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluvium is also sometimes called alluvial deposit. Alluvium is ...
sediment Sediment is a solid material that is transported to a new location where it is deposited. It occurs naturally and, through the processes of weathering and erosion, is broken down and subsequently sediment transport, transported by the action of ...
deposits are scarce. Accumulated soil structures are found only in plains, basins or flat coastal sections. The climate of the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
is similar in all parts, the temperature varies only in relation to the height. The influence of the
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...
is omnipresent, as no point of the land is at a larger distance than 50 miles. The climate is best classified as
mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
with dry hot summers and mild wet winters. As the dry season may last for months, the thin rests of soil on mountain slopes are merely covered by
Maquis shrubland 220px, Low maquis in Corsica 220px, High ''macchia'' in Sardinia ( , , ) or ( , ; often in Italian; , ; ; ; ) is a savanna-like shrubland biome in the Mediterranean region, typically consisting of densely growing evergreen shrubs. Maquis ...
, often of a degraded character. Even then, forests, when healthy and dense, are only mildly more humid and cooler. Very dominant is the intensive
karst Karst () is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and Dolomite (rock), dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. Ther ...
ification, which is present throughout. This dries out the humidity of soil; the often closed character of karst depressions may cause floods, as subterranean drainage can be too slow. But during the relatively short springtime, the rain of the last winter and mild temperatures may result in a very beautiful, blossoming season, where
biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability of life, life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and Phylogenetics, phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distribut ...
of Arcadian landscapes will show (April, May). As intensive dry summer periods may cause severe lack of freshwater, retaining it in
reservoir A reservoir (; ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam, usually built to water storage, store fresh water, often doubling for hydroelectric power generation. Reservoirs are created by controlling a watercourse that drains an existing body of wa ...
s would be an important contribution to public health by supplying sufficient water at all times. At the same time publicly supplied water for
irrigation Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has bee ...
and, eventually, for electricity from
power station A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the electricity generation, generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an electr ...
s, could help to develop the country. The land, which is suitable for herding or agriculture, is locally cultivated in traditional forms only. There is no industrial production in Arcadia. There was migration in all of Greece, in the Peloponnese and also in Arcadia's Argon Pedion, mainly after 1945 to North America and Australia. The infrastructure of transportation is miserable. While one heavily frequented highway connects Athens with
Patras Patras (; ; Katharevousa and ; ) is Greece's List of cities in Greece, third-largest city and the regional capital and largest city of Western Greece, in the northern Peloponnese, west of Athens. The city is built at the foot of Mount Panachaiko ...
along the
Corinthian Gulf The Gulf of Corinth or the Corinthian Gulf (, ) is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea, separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. It is bounded in the east by the Isthmus of Corinth which includes the shipping-designed Corinth Canal and ...
, there is only one other modern highway (motorway), connecting
Corinth Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...
with Tripoli and the south (at
Megalopoli Megalopoli () is a town in the southwestern part of the regional unit of Arcadia, southern Greece. It is located in the same site as ancient Megalopolis ( literally ''large/great city''). When it was founded in 371 BCE, it was the first large urba ...
with two divisions, towards
Messenia Messenia or Messinia ( ; ) is a regional unit (''perifereiaki enotita'') in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese region, in Greece. Until the implementation of the Kallikratis plan on 1 January 2011, Messenia was a prefecture (''nomos' ...
and
Laconia Laconia or Lakonia (, , ) is a historical and Administrative regions of Greece, administrative region of Greece located on the southeastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. Its administrative capital is Sparti (municipality), Sparta. The word ...
). The partly tolled motorways are the only constructions, where the very mountainous, difficult topography of the Peloponnese does not dictate the route. The only railway line serving Arcadia and the south (Corinthia-Tripoli-
Kalamata Kalamata ( ) is the second most populous city of the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece after Patras, and the largest city of the Peloponnese (region), homonymous administrative region. As the capital and chief port of the Messenia regiona ...
), a narrow-gauge railway, was partly refitted and then – before the new operation – liquidated, including goods traffic in 2011.


The polje Argon Pedion

The closed basin Argon Pedion (4 x 2 km, a polje similar to poljes in the karstic
Dinaric Alps The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern Europe, Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia ...
) is a stand-alone part of the Tripoli Basin (30 x 6 km) in the northeast. In a publication the Greek geologist I. Mariolakos describes the Tripoli Basin, the basin of Argon Pedion and other similar neighboring basins of Arcadia and compares them with the classical myths, which are broadly present among Greeks. Two mountains, opposite to each other form a 250 m wide flat bottom at the south end of Argon Pedion. But as this bottom gap between the mountains is higher than the basin's bottom, it functions like a dam. Consequently, only floods with a water level of more than 5 m can be drained aboveground. This turns the plain into a closed basin. The rain down the mountains fills the draining ditches, then floods the untilled plain (grassland), making the soil sucked with water. Exceptionally large rain waters may swell up to a temporary lake, whose upper border may not or may reach the acres in the slightly higher upper basin section, that is cultivated by the village Saga. The subsurface drainage through the katavothra may be so slow that it will extend into the vegetation time (April). The grassland is ideal for herding sheep and goats, as a ground sucked with water makes wanton grass vegetation, that dries up later in the dry period. With "cows of the poor" many people of the two villages at the borders of the basin make their living. When the grassland is dried up, the goats, which are well known for their abilities to undemanding feed and easy digesting, weatherproof in hot and cold and climbing well even on bare rock may move to the mountain slopes around, where they can feed on sparse vegetation of shrubs. Yet this bares the danger of
overgrazing Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature ...
, as plants are kept down by these animal's preferred feeding of all kinds of buds. Nestani-Saga-Polje_Arcadia_Greece.jpg, Idyllic Arcadia? shepherd-Likouria_Achaea_Peloponnese_Greece.jpg,
Shepherd A shepherd is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards flocks of sheep. Shepherding is one of the world's oldest occupations; it exists in many parts of the globe, and it is an important part of Pastoralism, pastoralist animal husbandry. ...
from Likouria,
Achaia Achaea () or Achaia (), sometimes transliterated from Greek as Akhaia (, ''Akhaḯa'', ), is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Western Greece and is situated in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. The ...
Livestock-(over-)grazing Peolonnes Greece Ziege.jpg,
Overgrazing Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature ...
? by goat herding
The village Saga at the upper end of the basin remains focused on its cultivating the fertile soils of the upper basin, even so, the low level of mechanization and the declining importance of traditional land cultivation is imminent. However, around the village, on alluvial grounds and on slope terraces, where the soil is as rich as in the plain, the villagers successfully established gardens and niche-plantation.


Geology, Hydrogeology


Geology of Greece

The peninsula Peloponnese is dominated by carbonate rock, "Tripoliza" (
limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
- and similar carbonate formations). These rock formations were subject of intense
tectonic Tectonics ( via Latin ) are the processes that result in the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. The field of ''planetary tectonics'' extends the concept to other planets and moons. These processes ...
s that shattered the carbonate formations over time. Water, which runs through the tectonically induced fractures chemically soluted the rock ( karstifikation) and thus widened the fractions over time (dissolution) to the size of subterranean waterways, even caves. Physical and chemical
weathering Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. It occurs '' in situ'' (on-site, with little or no move ...
and all kinds of water
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
washed the surfaces off the mountains, over time, accumulating layers of loose
sediment Sediment is a solid material that is transported to a new location where it is deposited. It occurs naturally and, through the processes of weathering and erosion, is broken down and subsequently sediment transport, transported by the action of ...
on the rocky floors of the basins. This is so in most parts of the Peninsula.


Geology and Hydrology of Argon Pedion

In vast parts of the Arcadian Highland such geological and hydrogeological conditions prevail. Important tectonic fractures formed between the Arcadian highland and the Argolic Gulf. As upper karstic forms developed the fractured structure, these became the most important hydrotectonic units. The existence of such structures have been backed up by a large geological study, which had the Arcadian basins as subject. The distribution of the subsurface karst waters and the retention time in the karstic underground, until the water emerged again in large springs at the Argolic Gulf, was quantified and verified by a lot of experimental
dye tracing Dye tracing is a method of tracking and tracing various flows using dye as a flow tracer when added to a liquid. Dye tracing may be used to analyse the flow of the liquid or the transport of objects within the liquid. Dye tracking may be either qu ...
s in 1983 and again in 1984. These experiments evaluated many subterranean waterways between several katavothres and springs at the Argolic Gulf. The drainage between Argon Pedion and the spring
Kiveri Kiveri () is a small village in the municipal unit of Lerna, Argolis, Greece. It is situated on the bay of Argos across from the tourist center of Nafplio. It has a population of approximately 1000. According to legend it was founded in 1600 BC ...
(Argolic Gulf) was confirmed as one of the large underground discharges. Although the karst water of spring Kiveri emerges in the sea-water of the
continental shelf A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an islan ...
it is sweet water of surprisingly good quality: The
Chloride The term chloride refers to a compound or molecule that contains either a chlorine anion (), which is a negatively charged chlorine atom, or a non-charged chlorine atom covalently bonded to the rest of the molecule by a single bond (). The pr ...
s have an extraordinarily low value and thus the water is suitable for irrigation. Since the emerged water quantity is large, a 5-meter broad concrete canal was built to transport the irrigation water over 15 km to the extensive fertile low plain of Argos, where thousands of farmers cultivate the plain. It is interesting, that de reemerging of the karst water of Argon Pedion in the large submarine spring Kiveri was already known by the ancient author Pausanias. In rainy winters there may be more water than the only one katavothra, which opens in the limestone rock wall below the village
Nestani Nestani (, before 1927: Τσιπιανά ''Tsipiana''Name changes of settlem ...
, can drain rapidly enough. A temporary lake will be created. It happens, that the mass of water will not all be drained by the beginning of springtime. This phenomenon of a temporary lake in Argon Pedion is documented for the years 2003, 2014 and again March 2019. The not obstructed subterranean water transport from the katavothra to the springs at the Argolic Gulf takes ca. 190 hours. Submarine_Karst-spring-Kiveri_Peloponnese_Greece.jpg, Submarine
Karst spring A karst spring or karstic spring is a Spring (hydrology), spring (exsurgence, outflow of groundwater) that is part of a karst hydrological system. Description Because of their often conical or inverted bowl shape, karst springs are also known i ...
Kiveri,
Argolic Gulf The Argolic Gulf (), also known as the Gulf of Argolis, is a gulf of the Aegean Sea off the east coast of the Peloponnese, Greece. It is about 50 km long and 30 km wide. Its main port is Nafplio, at its northwestern end. At the entrance ...
. Large pumped water pipe for irrigation Old-Irrigation_Nestani-Saga-Polje_Arcadia_Peloponnese.jpg, obsolete irrigation well, visible ground water level Cultivated-Saga-Environment_Arcadia_Greece.jpg, Fertile upper Argon Pedion Pausanias-Klimaka-Pass_Nestani-Saga-Polje_Arcadia_Peloponnese.jpg, Pausanias' "Ladder" after the "Portitsa-Pass"


Anthropogenic developments

The people of the villages Nestani and Saga secured their livelihood in accordance with what the plain and its environment facilitated. Cultivating the ground and properly treating the available water resources reflected the local opportunities. On alluvial soils of slopes around the villages, which have favorable grounds as in the plain, the people cultivated gardens and terraces. The care necessary for cultivating and watering the plain in the dry summer period was achieved by walled irrigation wells with chunky shovels. There were wells distributed across the whole plain. The metal is now rusty, the wells are rugged constructions, but no longer in use. Where necessary and affordable these tools are replaced by motorized pumps. Apart from single initiatives, the mechanization of agriculture, measured by the international industry standard, is still rather modest. Drainage ditches are everywhere in the plain and obviously important to prevent it from becoming swampy, but taking care of holding the water table and the proper humidity for grassland and acres as long as possible is another thing. All drainage is towards the one single kathavotha. That is why excessive precipitation in case of intensive winter rainfall often exceeded the capacity of ditches to swiftly transport the water and the Katavothra to swallow it. Advanced knowledge, machinery, and methods beyond
smallholding A smallholding or smallholder is a small farm operating under a small-scale agriculture model. Definitions vary widely for what constitutes a smallholder or small-scale farm, including factors such as size, food production technique or technolo ...
agriculture were implemented: New ditches were dredged, all ditches well cleaned, a row of trees planted to strengthen the ground. The 5 meter opening of the katavothra in the massive limestone rock was sheathed by a strong metal lattice.


History of Argon Pedion and Arcadia


The ancient geographer

The publication of Pausanias (120–180 AD), handed down in Hellenistic Greek (Ελλάδος περιήγησις), also available in German (Beschreibung Griechenlands) and English translation (Description of Greece), describes in Book 8, Arcadia, and explicitly also Argon Pedion. Actually, the name "Argon Pedion", the modern Greek term for "untilled plain", is the term Pausanias introduced in his publication. Pausanias describes the ancient road, which starts at the ancient city of Argos, ascending the mountain chain Artemisio to the "Portitsa-Pass" and then, abruptly downhill, the zigzag descent into the basin of Argon Pedion. The zigzag path is still there and visible (see the photo "Ladder"). Pausanias describes the "Ladder" (Κλιμαξ Παυσανία) with detail about its steps.:
There is a pass into Arcadia �� There are two others on the side of Mantineia: one through what is called Primus and one through the Ladder. The latter is the broader, and its descent had steps that were once cut into it. �� Pausanias, Book 8, Arcadia, 8.6.4, English by W.H.S. Jones/H.A. Ormerod, London 1918
After crossing into Mantinean country over Mount Artemisius you will come to a plain called the Untilled Plain, whose name well describes it, for the rain-water coming down into it from the mountains prevents the plain from being tilled; nothing indeed could prevent it from being a lake, were it not that the water disappears into a chasm in the earth. After disappearing here it rises again at Dine (Whirlpool). Dine is a stream of fresh-water rising out of the sea by what is called Genethlium in Argolis. Pausanias, Book 8, Arcadia, 8.7.1f, English by W.H.S. Jones/H.A. Ormerod, London 1918
Dine is obviously Kiveri Spring. Pausanias' time obviously had a basic knowledge of the hydrology of the untilled plain and the re-emergence of the water in the submarine spring Kiveri in the continental shelf of the Argolic Gulf. The ancient Portitsa-Pass is an impressive human-made monument: A 6 m deep incision in the rock at the mountain crest, with 3 m, broad enough to give way to a wagon, of which rests of wheel tracks were discovered The descent on Pausanias' Ladder in ancient times was a zigzag wagon driveway, of which the historical upper section still exists. The descent is the old driveway across the basin Argon Pedion.See "Porta Artemissiou" in ''External Links''


The Renaissance of Arcadian idyll

A remarkable interpretation of
Theocritus Theocritus (; , ''Theokritos''; ; born 300 BC, died after 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily, Magna Graecia, and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry. Life Little is known of Theocritus beyond what can be inferred from his writings ...
' "idyll" was given by the Roman poet and epics writer
Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Rome, ancient Roman poet of the Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Augustan period. He composed three of the most fa ...
. He took the idealized Sicilian rustics and set them in Arcadia. For him, Arcadia was the homeland, where idyll had its origin. The idea was "reborn" in the Italian "
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
", supported by the enthusiastic patron
Lorenzo de' Medici Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici (), known as Lorenzo the Magnificent (; 1 January 1449 – 9 April 1492), was an Italian statesman, the ''de facto'' ruler of the Florentine Republic, and the most powerful patron of Renaissance culture in Italy. Lore ...
. Arcadia, the "Country of the
Shepherd A shepherd is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards flocks of sheep. Shepherding is one of the world's oldest occupations; it exists in many parts of the globe, and it is an important part of Pastoralism, pastoralist animal husbandry. ...
s" inspired Italian poetry (Poesia bucolic) and became a very important literary genre. The leading painter
Nicolas Poussin Nicolas Poussin (, , ; June 1594 – 19 November 1665) was a French painter who was a leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. Most of his works were on religious and mythologic ...
, French, but living in Rome, had a lasting impression not only on the baroque epoch of art. His two versions of the painting "
Et in arcadia ego ''Et in Arcadia ego'' (also known as ''Les bergers d'Arcadie'' or ''The Arcadian Shepherds'') is a 1637–38 painting by Classical painter Nicolas Poussin. It depicts a pastoral scene with idealized shepherds from classical antiquity, and a woma ...
" (e.g. "Even in Arcadia, there am I") symbolize pure, rural, idyllic life, peace, and death. Ever since then and to the present prevails this kind of blissful idea of self-complacent shepherd life in Arcadia, the Greek country, that is not a classical Greek city-state, an "idyll" that is alive – especially among many "classically educated".


References


Literature

* Cvijić, Jovan, Das Karstphänomen. Versuch eine morphologischen Monographie. in: Geographische Abhandlungen A. Penck, (Hrsg), Bd. V, Heft 3, Wien 1893. German * Jacobshagen, Volker (ed), Geologie von Griechenland, Beiträge zur regionalen Geologie der Erde, Stuttgart, 1986. German/English * Pausanias, Description of Greece, English Translation by W.H.S. Jones + H.A. Ormerod, London, 1918. * Morfis, A. (Athens), Zojer, H. (Graz). Karst Hydrogeology of the Central and Eastern Peloponnesus (Greece). Steirische Beiträge zur Hydrogeologie 37/38. 301 Seiten, Graz 1986. * Lehmann, Herbert, in Fuchs, F., (ed), Karstphänomene in Nordmediterranen Raum, (1973), Beiträge zur Karstmorphologie, Herbert Lehmann; Reprint noch aktueller Beiträge, Stuttgart 1987 German * Ford, D. C. and Williams, P.W., Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology, London 1989. * Mariolakos, Ilias. The Argon Field in Arcadia, the sinkhole of Nestani, God Poseidon and the submarine Dini Springs in the A Argolic Gulf (Peloponnisos, Greece). A geomythological approach of the Poseidon's birth. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, Proceedings of the 10th International Congress, Thessaloniki, April 2004. * COST 621, Final Report, Groundwater Management of coastal karst aquifers, Brussels 2005. * Gunn, J., Encyclopedia of caves and karst Science, New York, N.Y., 2005. * Pentecost, A., Travertine. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2005. * Ford, D. C. and Williams, P., Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology, Chichester, 2007, 4th, rev. ed. * P. Fleury, M. Bakalowicz, G. de Marsily: Submarine springs and coastal karst aquifers: A review. In: Journal of Hydrology. Amsterdam 2007, S. 339. * Mariolakos, Ilias. Geomythological Sites and Prehistoric geotechnical and hydraulic Works in Arkadia, 12th International Congress of the Geological Society of Greece, Field Trip Guide, Patras May 2010, Greek


External links

* Pausanias, Book 8, English translation, on Argon Pedion http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+8.7.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 * Mariolakos, Geomythological Sites in Arcadia (incl. Argon Pedion) http://kpe-kastr.ark.sch.gr/site/seminars/Geomythology/GeomythologyGuide.pdf Greek * Mariolakos, Geomythology of the Argon Field in Arcadia http://www.geo.auth.gr/ege2004/articles/GA1_160.pdf * Saga village Argon Pedion, Greece http://www.saga.gr English/Greek * A thriving walnut plantation in Argon Pedion: http://www.gvasilopoulos.gr/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/nuts-111.jpg * "Porta Artemissiou" http://www.argolis.de/Porta%20Artemissiou/ illustrations+German * Klimax road to Mantineia (Η Αρχαία Οδός Κλίμαξ): http://arcadia.ceid.upatras.gr/arkadia/arcadia-hist/topics/portitsa.htm Greek {{Wikidatacoord, Q70091883, type:event, display=title Geography of Arcadia, Peloponnese Plains of Greece Karst fields