Sind (,
Urdu
Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...
& ) was an administrative division of the
Umayyad Caliphate
The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...
and later of the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...
in
post-classical India, from around 711 CE with the
Umayyad conquest of Sindh
The Umayyad conquest of Sindh took place in 711 AD and resulted in Sindh being incorporated as a province into the Umayyad Caliphate. The conquest resulted in the overthrow of the last Hindu dynasty of Sindh, the Brahmin dynasty, after the death ...
by the
Arab
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
military commander
Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, to around 854 CE with the emergence of the
independent dynasties of the
Habbarid Emirate in
Sindh
Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...
proper and the
Emirate of Multan
The Emirate of Multan was a medieval kingdom in Punjab region in the northwest Indian subcontinent that was centred around city of Multan (present-day Punjab, Pakistan). It initially extended towards parts of Kashmir, and included parts of present ...
in
Punjab
Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
. The "Governor of Sind" () was an official who administered the
caliphal province over what are now Sindh, southern
Punjab
Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
and
Makran
Makran (), also mentioned in some sources as ''Mecran'' and ''Mokrān'', is the southern coastal region of Balochistan. It is a semi-desert coastal strip in the Balochistan province in Pakistan and in Iran, along the coast of the Gulf of Oman. I ...
(
Balochistan
Balochistan ( ; , ), also spelled as Baluchistan or Baluchestan, is a historical region in West and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. This arid region o ...
) in
Pakistan
Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
.
The governor was the chief
Muslim
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
official in the province and was responsible for maintaining security in the region. As the leader of the provincial military, he was also in charge of carrying out campaigns against the
non-Muslim kingdoms of India. Governors appointed to the region were selected either directly by the caliph or by an authorized subordinate, and remained in office until they either died or were dismissed.
Geography
Sind was a frontier province of the
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
and Abbasid caliphates from its conquest in c. 711 until the mid-ninth century. Situated at the far eastern end of the caliphate, it consisted of the territories held by the Muslims in
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, which at the time were centered in the
Indus
The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans- Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in the Western Tibet region of China, flows northwest through the dis ...
region. Sind proper was bounded on the west by
Makran
Makran (), also mentioned in some sources as ''Mecran'' and ''Mokrān'', is the southern coastal region of Balochistan. It is a semi-desert coastal strip in the Balochistan province in Pakistan and in Iran, along the coast of the Gulf of Oman. I ...
, on the northwest by
Sijistan and the district of
Turan
Turan (; ; , , ) is a historical region in Central Asia. The term is of Iranian origin and may refer to a particular prehistoric human settlement, a historic geographical region, or a culture. The original Turanians were an Iranian tribe of th ...
, on the northeast by
Multan
Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...
, on the east by the
Thar Desert
The Thar Desert (), also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent that covers an area of in India and Pakistan. It is the world's 18th-largest desert, and the world's 9th-large ...
, on the southeast by the non-Muslim
Hind, and on the southwest by the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
.
Conquest of Sind

In the history of the
Muslim conquests The Muslim conquests, Muslim invasions, Islamic conquests, including Arab conquests, Arab Islamic conquests, also Iranian Muslim conquests, Turkic Muslim conquests etc.
*Early Muslim conquests
** Ridda Wars
**Muslim conquest of Persia
*** Muslim co ...
, Sind was a relatively late achievement, occurring almost a century after the
Hijrah
The Hijrah, () also Hegira (from Medieval Latin), was the journey the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. The year in which the Hijrah took place is also identified as the e ...
(start of Islamic calendar). Military raids against India had been undertaken by the Muslims as early as
Umar
Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
's reign (634–644), but the pace of expansion in the region was initially slow: in 636, an Arab naval expedition attacked
Broach
Broach may refer to:
* Broaching (metalworking), a machining operation that uses a metalworking tool with a series of chisel points mounted on one piece of steel
* Broach (nautical), a sudden loss of control of a vessel caused either by wind actio ...
, which had come under the control of the
Chalukyas
The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
following the submission of Jayabhata of the
Gurjaras of Lata, and
Thana
Thana means " station" or "place" in South Asian countries. The word ''thana'' originates from the Sanskrit word ''sthana'' or "sthanak", meaning "place" or "stand", which was anglicized as ''thana'' by the British.
* Thanas of Bangladesh, forme ...
, but it was soon recalled after achieving some damage and they failed to capture these cities. Several governors were appointed to the Indian frontier (') and tasked with conducting campaigns in the east. Some of these expeditions were successful, but others ended in defeat and a number of governors were killed while serving there.
According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sind and the early partisans of Caliph
Ali or proto-
Shi'ites
Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
could be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a
companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who traveled across Sind to
Makran
Makran (), also mentioned in some sources as ''Mecran'' and ''Mokrān'', is the southern coastal region of Balochistan. It is a semi-desert coastal strip in the Balochistan province in Pakistan and in Iran, along the coast of the Gulf of Oman. I ...
in 649 and presented a report on the area to the caliph. He supported Ali, and died in the
Battle of the Camel
The Battle of the Camel, also known as The Battle of Basra () took place outside of Basra, Iraq, in 36 AH (656 CE). The battle was fought between the army of the fourth caliph Ali (), on one side, and the rebel army led by Aisha, Talha and ...
alongside Sindi
Jats
The Jat people (, ), also spelt Jaat and Jatt, are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, many Jats migrated north into the Punjab region in ...
. During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam. Harith ibn Murrah al-Abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Sindi bandits and chased them to
al-Qiqan (present-day
Quetta
Quetta is the capital and largest city of the Pakistani province of Balochistan. It is the ninth largest city in Pakistan, with an estimated population of over 1.6 million in 2024. It is situated in the south-west of the country, lying in a ...
) in 658. Sayfi was one of the seven partisans of Ali who were beheaded alongside
Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi in 660 AD, near
Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
.
In the caliphate of
Mu'awiya I
Mu'awiya I (–April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than thirty years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and immediately after the four Rashid ...
(), the region of Makran was subdued and a garrison was established there. Over the following decades, the Muslims progressed further east, conquering the district of
Qusdar and raiding the areas around
Qandabil and al-Qiqan.
Sind was conquered in by
Muhammad ibn Qasim al-Thaqafi, who had been sent to undertake a punitive expedition against
Dahir, the king of Sind. After marching through Makran and defeating its inhabitants, Muhammad entered Sind and attacked the port city of
Daybul, which fell after a siege and was partly colonized by the Muslims. Following this victory, Muhammad moved north and encountered Dahir, whom he defeated and killed. He then spent the next few years campaigning in Sind and
Multan
Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...
, forcing the various cities of the country to submit to him.
This period of conquests continued until 715, when Caliph
al-Walid I
Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (; – 23 February 715), commonly known as al-Walid I (), was the sixth Umayyad caliph, ruling from October 705 until his death in 715. He was the eldest son of his predecessor, Caliph Abd al-Malik (). As ...
() died; shortly after the accession of Caliph
Sulayman, Muhammad was arrested and executed, and a replacement was sent by the government to take control of Sind.
From then on, the
Turk Shahis now had to face an additional Muslim threat from the southeast, as did Hindu kingdoms, especially the
Maitrakas
The Maitraka dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Valabhi in western India from approximately 475 to 776 from their capital at Vallabhi. With the sole exception of Dharapaṭṭa (the fifth king in the dynasty), who is associated with sun-worship, the ...
and the
Gurjara-Pratiharas, on their western borders, since the Caliphal province of Sind extended as far as
Multan
Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...
, at the gates of the
Punjab
Punjab (; ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb) is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern Pakistan and no ...
, and would last until 854 CE as an
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
and then
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
dependency.
Umayyad period
As a result of its conquest, Sind became a province of the caliphate and governors were appointed to administer it. As the commander of a frontier province, the governor was responsible for guarding the country against external incursions, and could carry out raids into Hind (India) at his discretion. The governor's jurisdiction usually also included the neighboring regions of Makran, Turan and Multan; in addition, any territories that he conquered in Hind were added to his area of authority.
In the administrative hierarchy of the Umayyad Caliphate, the responsibility for selecting governors to the province was assigned to the
governor of Iraq, or, if that position was vacant, to the governor of
Basra
Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
. Unless he received specific commands from the caliph, the governor of Iraq had the authority to appoint and dismiss governors to Sind and he was in charge of supervising their activities in the province.
According to the historian
Khalifa ibn Khayyat, after the downfall of Muhammad ibn Qasim the responsibilities of the governor of Sind were temporarily divided between two officials, one of whom was in charge of military affairs and the other in charge of taxation. This change was soon rescinded and the next governor,
Habib ibn al-Muhallab al-Azdi, had full authority over both the fiscal and military affairs on the province.
As a general rule, provincial governorships in the Umayyad period were held almost exclusively by Arabs, and this trend was reflected in the appointees to Sind during this period.
Qaysi–Yamani tribal politics also played a strong role in the selection and dismissal of governors; if the governor of Iraq was
Qays
Qays ʿAylān (), often referred to simply as Qays (''Kais'' or ''Ḳays'') were an Arab tribal confederation that branched from the Mudar group. The tribe may not have functioned as a unit in pre-Islamic Arabia (before 630). However, by the ea ...
i, then his governor to Sind would likely be Qaysi, and if he was
Yamani, his selection would likely be Yamani as well. There were, however, some exceptions;
Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri was initially appointed to Sind by a fellow Qaysi, but was allowed to retain his position for two years after the governor of Iraq was replaced with a Yamani.

The governors of Sind in the Umayyad period undertook extensive campaigns against the non-Muslim kingdoms of Hind, but with mixed results. Al-Junayd's campaigns were largely successful, but his successor
Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi encountered difficulties and the Muslims were forced to retreat from Hind. The next governor,
al-Hakam ibn Awana, vigorously campaigned in Hind and initially achieved some victories, but he too experienced a reversal of fortune and was eventually killed. Raids into Hind continued after al-Hakam's death, but no major territorial gains were achieved, and the Muslim presence in India remained largely restricted to the Indus valley region.
As part of his efforts to secure the Muslim position in Sind, al-Hakam constructed the military garrison of
al-Mahfuzah, which he made into his capital ('). Shortly after this, his lieutenant
Amr, a son of Muhammad ibn Qasim, built a second city near al-Mahfuzah, which he called
al-Mansura. This latter city eventually became the permanent administrative capital of Sind, and it served as the seat of the Umayyad and
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
governors.
The names of the caliphal governors of Sind are preserved in the histories of Khalifa ibn Khayyat and
al-Ya'qubi. Some differences exist between the two authors' versions; these are noted below. The ''
Futuh al-Buldan'' by
al-Baladhuri
ʾAḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jābir al-Balādhurī () was a 9th-century West Asian historian. One of the eminent Middle Eastern historians of his age, he spent most of his life in Baghdad and enjoyed great influence at the court of the caliph al ...
, which focuses on the military conquests of the early Muslim state, also contains the names of many of the governors who served in Sind.
List of Governors of Sindh
Abbasid period
At the time of the
Abbasid Revolution, Sind was in the hands of the anti-Umayyad rebel
Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi
Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi () was an 8th-century Arab commander and one of the main and most fanatical leaders of the south Arab ("Yaman") tribes in the Qays–Yaman rivalry of the period, playing a major role during the Third Fitna civil war.
Pat ...
. Following their victory over the Umayyads, the Abbasids at first left Mansur in control of the province, but this state of affairs did not last and the new dynasty sent
Musa ibn Ka'b al-Tamimi
Musa ibn Ka'b al-Tamimi () was an 8th-century Arab commander during the Abbasid Revolution and then provincial governor for the Abbasid Caliphate.
Biography
Musa first appears as one of the "twelve '' naqibs''" who prepared the Abbasid Revoluti ...
to take over the region. He was able to defeat Mansur and enter Sind,
thereby firmly establishing Abbasid control over the province.
After the new dynasty came to power, Sind's administrative status was somewhat ambiguous, with governors being appointed either directly by the caliph or by the governor of
Khurasan
KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West Asia, West and Central Asia that encompasses wes ...
,
Abu Muslim. This situation lasted only until Abu Muslim's murder in 755; thereafter, appointments to Sind were almost always handled by the caliph and the central government.
In the first century of the Abbasid caliphate, governors continued to conduct raids against the non-Muslim kingdoms of Hind, and some minor gains were achieved. The historians also recorded the various struggles of the governors to maintain stability within Sind, as internecine tribal warfare,
Alid partisans and disobedient Arab factions intermittently threatened the government's control over the region. Another potential source of trouble came from the governors themselves; a few of the individuals appointed to Sind attempted to rebel against the Abbasids, and had to be subdued by force of arms. In general, however, Abbasid authority in Sind remained effective during this period of their rule.
Under the Abbasids, Arabs continued to frequently occupy the governorship, but over time the selections became somewhat more diverse. Under the caliphs
al-Mahdi
Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Manṣūr (; 744 or 745 – 785), better known by his regnal name al-Mahdī (, "He who is guided by God"), was the third Abbasid Caliph who reigned from 775 to his death in 785. He succeeded his ...
(775–785) and
al-Rashid (786–809), non-Arab clients (''
mawali
''Mawlā'' (, plural ''mawālī'' ), is a polysemous Arabic word, whose meaning varied in different periods and contexts.A.J. Wensinck, Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Mawlā", vol. 6, p. 874.
Before the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the te ...
'') were sometimes appointed to Sind. In the caliphate of
al-Ma'mun
Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn Hārūn al-Maʾmūn (; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name al-Ma'mun (), was the seventh Abbasid caliph, who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. His leadership was marked by t ...
(813–833), the governorship was given to a member of the Persian
Barmakid family, and the province remained under their rule for a number of years. After the Barmakids, the
Turkish general
Itakh was given control of Sind, although he deputed the actual administration of the province to an Arab. During this period several members of the prominent
Muhallabid family served in Sind; their combined administrations spanned over a period of more than three decades.
Under al-Rashid, a few minor members of the Abbasid family were also appointed as governors of the province.
Decline of Abbasid authority

Over the course of the mid-ninth century, Abbasid authority in Sind gradually waned. A new era in the history of the province began in 854, when Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Habbari, a local Arab resident of Sind, was appointed to govern the country. Shortly after this, the central government
entered a period of crisis which crippled its ability to maintain its authority in the provinces; this stagnation allowed 'Umar to rule Sind without any interference from the caliphal court at
Samarra
Samarra (, ') is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. The modern city of Samarra was founded in 836 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim as a new administrative capital and mi ...
. 'Umar ended up creating a hereditary dynasty, that of the
Habbarids, which ruled in al-Mansura for almost two centuries. Although the Habbarids continued to acknowledge the Abbasids as their nominal suzerains, the effective authority of the caliph largely disappeared and the Habbarids were de facto independent.
In spite of their loss of effective control over Sind, the Abbasid government continued to formally appoint governors to the province. In 871 the caliphal regent
Abu Ahmad ibn al-Mutawakkil invested the
Saffarid
The Saffarid dynasty () was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian origin that ruled over parts of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and eastern Makran from 861 to 1002. One of the first indigenous Persian dynasties to emerge after the Islamic conque ...
Ya'qub ibn al-Layth with the governorship of Sind. In 875 the general
Masrur al-Balkhi was given control of most of the eastern provinces, including Sind. Four years after this, Sind was again assigned to the Saffarids, with
Amr ibn al-Layth receiving the appointment. These appointments, however, were purely nominal, and it is unlikely that these individuals exercised any actual authority over the local rulers within the province.
As the central government's authority over Sind declined, the region underwent a period of decentralization. Habbarid authority appears to have been largely restricted to Sind proper, and did not extend to Makran, Turan and Multan, which all broke away under separate dynasties. Some of the rulers in these regions also continued to nominally recognize the caliph as their ruler, but were effectively self-governing; others rejected the caliph's authority altogether and were outright independent. These minor dynasties continued to govern in their respective localities until the early eleventh century, when the
Ghaznavids
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic peoples, Turkic ''mamluk'' origin. It ruled the Ghaznavid Empire or the Empire of Ghazni from 977 to 1186, which at its greatest extent, extended from the Oxus ...
invaded India and annexed most of the Muslim territories in the country.
[Baloch and Rafiqi, pp. 294–6; 296 ff.]
See also
*
List of Umayyad governors of al-Andalus
*
List of caliphal governors of Arminiyah
*
List of caliphal governors of Egypt
*
List of caliphal governors of Ifriqiyah
*
List of Umayyad governors of Iraq
This is a list of governors of the Umayyad province of Iraq.
Overview
In medieval history, Iraq ( ') was the area comprising the Lower Mesopotamia, lower parts of Mesopotamia, being roughly equivalent in size and shape to the ancient region of ...
*
List of caliphal governors of al-Madinah
Notes
References
* Al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Jabir. ''The Origins of the Islamic State, Part II.'' Trans. Francis Clark Murgotten. New York: Columbia University, 1924.
*
*
*
* ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam.'' New Ed. 12 vols. with supplement and indices. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960–2005.
* Gabrieli, Francesco. "Muhammad ibn Qasim ath-Thaqafi and the Arab Conquest of Sind." ''East and West'' 15/3-4 (1965): 281–295.
* Khalifah ibn Khayyat. ''Tarikh Khalifah ibn Khayyat.'' Ed. Akram Diya' al-'Umari. 3rd ed. Al-Riyadh: Dar Taybah, 1985.
*
* Shaban, M. A. ''The 'Abbasid Revolution.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
*
* Al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir. ''The History of al-Tabari.'' Ed. Ehsan Yar-Shater. 40 vols. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1985–2007.
* Al-Ya'qubi, Ahmad ibn Abu Ya'qub. ''Historiae, Vol. 2.'' Ed. M. Th. Houtsma. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1883.
*
{{History of Sindh
8th-century establishments in India
9th-century disestablishments in India
States and territories established in the 710s
States and territories disestablished in the 9th century