The Appalachian temperate rainforest or Appalachian cloud forest is located in the southern
Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, are a mountain range in eastern to northeastern North America. The term "Appalachian" refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range, and its surrounding terrain ...
of the eastern United States and is among the most
biodiverse
Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth ...
temperate regions
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
in the world.
Centered primarily around
Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forests between southwestern
Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
and southwestern
North Carolina
North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...
, it has a cool, mild climate with highly variable temperature and precipitation patterns linked to elevation.
The
temperate rainforest
Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or Broad-leaved tree, broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain.
Temperate rainforests occur in oceanic moist regions around the world: the Pacific temperate ...
as a whole has a mean annual temperature near and annual precipitation exceeding 140 centimeters (55in), though the highest peaks can reach more than 200 centimeters (79in) and are frequently shrouded in fog.
Due to variable microclimates across different elevations, the rainforest is able to support both southern and northern species, including some which were forced south during the Last Ice Age. Dominated by evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has Leaf, foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many diffe ...
spruce and fir forests at higher elevations and deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
cove forests at lower elevations, the ecosystem contains thousands of plant species, including epiphytes
An epiphyte is a plant or plant-like organism that grows on the surface of another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphyt ...
, orchids
Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Earth ...
, and numerous mosses
Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) '' sensu stricto''. Bryophyta ('' sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and ho ...
and ferns
The ferns (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissue ...
. It is also home to many animals and fungi, including endangered
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...
and endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
species, reaching the highest diversities of mushrooms
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
, salamanders
Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by their lizard-like appearance, with slender bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs projecting at right angles to the body, and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults. All t ...
, land snails
A land snail is any of the numerous species of snail that live on land, as opposed to the sea snails and freshwater snails. ''Land snail'' is the common name for terrestrial molluscs, terrestrial gastropod mollusks that have gastropod shell, shel ...
, and millipedes
Millipedes (originating from the Latin , "thousand", and , "foot") are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name derive ...
in the world.[
Humans have shaped the rainforest environment for the last 12,000 years through activities such as hunting and agriculture.][ These impacts grew following ]European colonization
The phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the globe and across time. Ancient and medieval colonialism was practiced by various civilizations such as the Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Han Chinese, and A ...
, which brought about significant changes, including the decline of native populations, land use alterations, and the introduction of non-native species.[ By the 1880s, industrialization left the forest devastated by mining, logging and the introduction of destructive invasive species, examples being ]chestnut blight
The pathogenic fungus ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America ...
and the balsam woolly adelgid
The balsam woolly adelgid (''Adelges piceae'') is small wingless insect that infests and kills firs. In their native Europe they are a minor parasite on silver fir and Sicilian fir, but they have become a threat especially to balsam fir and ...
.[ Conservation efforts such as the establishment of national forests and parks have helped preserve the ecosystem, though it continues to face ongoing threats such as ]wildfire
A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of Combustibility and flammability, combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a ...
and climate change
Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
.[
]
Definition
In order to be defined as a rainforest, the forest must average at least 140cm (55in) of precipitation annually and a temperate rainforest as opposed to a tropical rainforest is defined by a mean annual temperature between 4 and 12 degrees Celsius (39 and 54 degrees Fahrenheit). Some sources however say even at least 50 inches of precipitation annually qualifies an area as being a rainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree Canopy (biology), canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropi ...
. On the other hand, the book ''Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World'' states that a temperate rainforest
Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or Broad-leaved tree, broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain.
Temperate rainforests occur in oceanic moist regions around the world: the Pacific temperate ...
is defined by least 1,200mm (47.24 inches) of average annual precipitation.[ Alaback also adds some additional criteria to the definition of a temperate rainforest as having at least 10% of its average annual precipitation during the summer months, cool and frequently overcast summers with average July temperature less than 16 degrees Celsius (60.8 degrees Fahrenheit), and forest fires or wildifres rare and do not play an important role in the forest ecosystem. And it must also be dense and lush with a rich understory and epiphytes.
]
Climate
The Appalachian temperate rainforest has a cool and mild climate and meets the criteria of temperate rainforests identified by forest ecologist Paul Alaback. Temperature and precipitation are extremely variable with elevation, with rainforest conditions usually but not always concentrated around spruce–fir forests at higher elevations. These spruce–fir forests have an annual mean temperature of and a growing season mean (May–September) of , though this is likely somewhat cooler than the average across the entire rainforest ecosystem.[ It has annual precipitation above , a cool summer, typical transient snow in winter, mean annual temperature near , and summer rainfall is above 10% of overall precipitation, classifying it as a perhumid temperate rainforest.][
Annual precipitation varies significantly within the mountainous terrain, with the highest precipitation in southwest ]North Carolina
North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...
. High altitudes hosting spruce–fir forest receive more than 2,000 millimeters (79in) of precipitation while large swaths of lower elevation rainforest receive more than 1,525 millimeters (60in).[ This pattern is primarily influenced by upslope and downslope flow of southerly winds.][ The orographic effect causes rainfall when moist air originating in the ]Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico () is an oceanic basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, mostly surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north, and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southw ...
and western Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the ...
is forced upwards by the mountains.[David M. Gaffin (2012). ''Southern Appalachian Weather.'' New York: Vantage Press, 146 pages, .] Winter and spring months see a gradient precipitation pattern, with higher rainfall concentrated in the south.[ Weak upslope air flow in summer brings more precipitation to the highest elevations, while autumn is typically driest with occasional intense rainfall from tropical systems.][
In addition to the increased precipitation from orographic lift, cloud cover keeps the rate of water loss low due to minimal ]evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth's surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of w ...
.[ High elevation forests are immersed in clouds on 65% of growth-season days, leading some sources to describe the temperate rainforest as a ]cloud forest
A cloud forest, also called a water forest, primas forest, or tropical montane cloud forest, is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, Montane forest, montane, Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist forest characteri ...
.[ Water intercepted from clouds accounts for 25% to 50% of annual precipitation, which is a high rate.][ For comparison, in the boreal rainforests of Eastern Canada, fog contributes only 5 to 8% of annual precipitation.][ According to a tentative classification advocated by DellaSala, Alaback, Spribille, Wehrden, and Nauman in 2011, high-elevation temperate rainforest regions in Central Appalachia could be interpreted as "a southerly extension of Appalachian boreal rainforests from Eastern Canada", although this interpretation requires further study.][
]
Locations
The locations that are part of the Appalachian temperate rainforest include western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee
Tennessee (, ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina t ...
. In western North Carolina, the rainforest includes Pisgah National Forest
Pisgah National Forest is a United States National Forest, National Forest in the Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina. It is administered by the United States Forest Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture. The P ...
, Nantahala National Forest, Gorges State Park, DuPont State Forest
DuPont State Recreational Forest, commonly known as DuPont Forest, is a state forest, located in Henderson and Transylvania counties of North Carolina. The name originates from the fact that the DuPont company arranged the sale of the origin ...
, Chatahoochee-Oconee National Forest, and elsewhere in the Blue Ridge Mountains
The Blue Ridge Mountains are a Physiographic regions of the United States, physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Highlands range. The mountain range is located in the Eastern United States and extends 550 miles southwest from southern ...
. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park
Great Smoky Mountains National Park is a List of national parks of the United States, national park of the United States in the southeastern United States, southeast, with parts in North Carolina and Tennessee. The park straddles the ridgeline o ...
which cover parts of North Carolina and Tennessee, are also part of the rainforest. The Appalachian temperate rainforest also includes the mountains in Northern Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States
Georgia may also refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
such as Chattahoochee–Oconee National Forest, southwestern Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
, northwestern South Carolina
South Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders North Carolina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georg ...
, and southeastern Kentucky
Kentucky (, ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north, West Virginia to the ...
. The absolute wettest location within the Appalachian temperate rainforest is Nantahala National Forest with some areas that average more than 100 inches of precipitation annually making it the second wettest location in the continental US after the Pacific Northwest region.
Ecology
High precipitation levels, moderate year-round temperatures, and diverse terrain enable a wide range of species to survive. The rainforest is more biodiverse
Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth ...
than any temperate region of similar size in the world, with over 19,000 species identified in Great Smoky Mountains National Park alone. However, scientists estimate the real number of species may be as high as 100,000 or more.[ It is also home to many threatened, endangered, and endemic species, including plants, fungi, arthropods, fish, mammals, mollusks, and amphibians.]
Flora
Red spruce and Fraser fir
The Fraser fir (''Abies fraseri''), sometimes spelled Frasier fir, is an endangered species of fir native to the Appalachian Mountains of the southeastern United States. They are endemic to only seven montane regions in the Appalachian Mountains ...
are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevations (over 1,980 meters or 6,500 feet), Fraser fir is dominant; in middle elevations (1,675 to 1,890 meters or 5,495 to 6,201 feet) red spruce and Fraser fir grow together; and in lower elevation (1,370 to 1,650 meters or 4,490 to 5,410 feet) red spruce is dominant. The understory
In forestry and ecology, understory (American English), or understorey (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English), also known as underbrush or undergrowth, includes plant life growing beneath the Canopy (biology), forest ca ...
comprises trees such as Yellow birch
''Betula alleghaniensis'', the yellow birch, golden birch, or swamp birch, is a large tree and an important lumber species of birch native to northeastern North America. Its vernacular names refer to the golden color of the tree's bark. In the p ...
, mountain ash Mountain ash may refer to:
* ''Eucalyptus regnans'', the tallest of all flowering plants, native to Australia
* Mountain-ashes or rowans, varieties of trees and shrubs in the genus ''Sorbus''
See also
* Mountain Ash, Rhondda Cynon Taf, a town ...
, mountain maple, younger spruce and fir and shrubs like raspberry
The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus ''Rubus'' of the Rosaceae, rose family, most of which are in the subgenus ''Rubus#Modern classification, Idaeobatus''. The name also applies to these plants themselves. Ras ...
, blackberry
BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...
, hobblebush, southern mountain cranberries, red elderberry, minniebush, and southern bush honeysuckle. Below the spruce–fir forest, at around 1,200 meters (3,900ft), forest composition shifts in favor of deciduous trees such as American beech, maple
''Acer'' is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the soapberry family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated si ...
, birch
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains 3 ...
, and oak
An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisp ...
. American rhododendron is the dominant understory shrub throughout the deciduous layer but is only occasionally present in spruce–fir forests.[Stupka, Arthur. Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1964. Print.] Eastern skunk cabbage and common juniper are northern species that remained in this region after glaciers retreated.
In addition to over 100 species of native trees, 1,400 other flowering plants and 500 moss and fern species live in the rainforest habitat. These include a diverse array of wildflowers and dozens of fungi-reliant orchid
Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Eart ...
species.[Bentley, Stanley L. Native Orchids of the Southern Appalachians. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. Print.] The rainforest's high humidity supports epiphytic
An epiphyte is a plant or plant-like organism that grows on the surface of another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphyt ...
plant species at greater height and diversity than elsewhere in the eastern United States. A wide range of mosses, ferns, and liverworts
Liverworts are a group of non-vascular plant, non-vascular embryophyte, land plants forming the division Marchantiophyta (). They may also be referred to as hepatics. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in wh ...
have been identified as high as above the forest floor.[ These include common epiphytes like resurrection fern, the endemic liverwort '' Bazzania nudicaulis'', and some species that are solely terrestrial in the rest of their range including Appalachian rockcap fern, rose moss, and narrow-fruited crisp-moss.] Lianas
A liana is a long-Plant stem, stemmed Woody plant, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the Canopy (biology), canopy in search of direct sunlight. T ...
are also prevalent, especially in deciduous forest, with Virginia creeper
''Parthenocissus quinquefolia'', commonly known as Virginia creeper, woodbine, five-leaved ivy, or five-finger, is a species of flowering vine in the grape family Vitaceae.
The species is native to eastern and central North America, with its r ...
, poison ivy
Poison ivy is a type of allergenic plant in the genus '' Toxicodendron'' native to Asia and North America. Formerly considered a single species, '' Toxicodendron radicans'', poison ivies are now generally treated as a complex of three separate s ...
, and various grapevines
''Vitis'' (grapevine) is a genus of 81 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus consists of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, bot ...
being the most common.[
]
Fauna
With 30 identified species, the rainforest is home to the highest diversity of salamanders in the world. Several of these species are endemic to the region, including the black mountain salamander, southern dusky salamander, red-cheeked salamander, and Cheat Mountain salamander. Many species of salamander in this area do not have lungs, and breathe through their skin instead, so the wet environment of rotten trees and moist leaves is conducive for their survival.
Larger animals include the American black bear
The American black bear (''Ursus americanus''), or simply black bear, is a species of medium-sized bear which is Endemism, endemic to North America. It is the continent's smallest and most widely distributed bear species. It is an omnivore, with ...
, white-tailed deer
The white-tailed deer (''Odocoileus virginianus''), also known Common name, commonly as the whitetail and the Virginia deer, is a medium-sized species of deer native to North America, North, Central America, Central and South America. It is the ...
, wild turkey
The wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'') is an upland game bird native to North America, one of two extant species of Turkey (bird), turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey (''M. g. dom ...
, and groundhog
The groundhog (''Marmota monax''), also known as the woodchuck, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots.
A lowland creature of North America, it is found through much of the Easte ...
. Many large species once lived in the area, but were extirpated
Local extinction, also extirpation, is the termination of a species (or other taxon) in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinctions.
Local extinctions mark a chan ...
by land-use
Land use is an umbrella term to describe what happens on a parcel of land. It concerns the benefits derived from using the land, and also the land management actions that humans carry out there. The following categories are used for land use: fore ...
and hunting changes brought about by European colonization
The phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the globe and across time. Ancient and medieval colonialism was practiced by various civilizations such as the Phoenicians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Han Chinese, and A ...
. These include bison
A bison (: bison) is a large bovine in the genus ''Bison'' (from Greek, meaning 'wild ox') within the tribe Bovini. Two extant taxon, extant and numerous extinction, extinct species are recognised.
Of the two surviving species, the American ...
, elk, mountain lion
The cougar (''Puma concolor'') (, ''Help:Pronunciation respelling key, KOO-gər''), also called puma, mountain lion, catamount and panther is a large small cat native to the Americas. It inhabits North America, North, Central America, Cent ...
, gray wolf
The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the grey wolf or gray wolf, is a canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, including the dog and dingo, though gr ...
, red wolf
The red wolf (''Canis rufus'') is a Canis, canine native to the southeastern United States. Its size is intermediate between the coyote (''Canis latrans'') and Wolf, gray wolf (''Canis lupus'').
The red wolf's taxonomic classification as being ...
, fisher, river otter, peregrine falcon
The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known simply as the peregrine, is a Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family (biology), family Falconidae renowned for its speed. A large, Corvus (genus), cro ...
, and several species of fish.[ Northern species including the Carolina northern flying squirrel, ]American red squirrel
The American red squirrel (''Tamiasciurus hudsonicus'') is one of three species of tree squirrels currently classified in the genus ''Tamiasciurus'', known as the pine squirrels (the others are the Douglas squirrel, ''T. douglasii'', and the sou ...
, and saw-whet owl are relics of the Last Ice Age that survive in the area because of the cool climate. Mollusks
Mollusca is a phylum of protostomic invertebrate animals, whose members are known as molluscs or mollusks (). Around 76,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, making it the second-largest animal phylum after Arthropoda. The num ...
and millipedes
Millipedes (originating from the Latin , "thousand", and , "foot") are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name derive ...
reach their highest levels of biodiversity in the region, with about 150 species of land snails
A land snail is any of the numerous species of snail that live on land, as opposed to the sea snails and freshwater snails. ''Land snail'' is the common name for terrestrial molluscs, terrestrial gastropod mollusks that have gastropod shell, shel ...
and 230 species of millipedes documented thus far, though species estimates for both are much higher. It is also home to 460 arachnid species including the endangered spruce–fir moss spider, which lives nowhere else in the world.
Funga
The wet montane environment supports one of the world's highest diversities of fungi including lichens
A lichen ( , ) is a hybrid colony (biology), colony of algae or cyanobacteria living symbiotically among hypha, filaments of multiple fungus species, along with yeasts and bacteria embedded in the cortex or "skin", in a mutualism (biology), m ...
, sac fungi, mold
A mold () or mould () is one of the structures that certain fungus, fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of Spore#Fungi, spores containing Secondary metabolite#Fungal secondary metabolites, fungal ...
s, and mushrooms
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
.[ In total, over 2,300 species have been identified in the area and scientists estimate the actual number may be as high as 20,000.] Of the species discovered thus far, 800 (40%) are lichens.
History
The Appalachian Mountains began to form 460 million years ago with the collision of tectonic plates
Plate tectonics (, ) is the scientific theory that the Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of , an idea developed durin ...
, and finished their uplift around 230 million years ago.[ During the Last Ice Age, ice covered much of northern North America, but the southern Appalachians remained ice-free.][ This uncovered area acted as a refuge for species that were forced southward. After the ice receded, some species spread back north, but many stayed in the southern Appalachians.][ Because temperature declines with increased elevation, the varying topography of the mountains forms ]microclimate
A microclimate (or micro-climate) is a local set of atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often slightly but sometimes substantially. The term may refer to areas as small as a few square m ...
s that mimic both northern and southern latitudes.[ This has combined with a relatively stable year-round climate to enable northern and southern species to live in close proximity each other, lending the rainforest its high biodiversity.][
]
Pre-colonial
Around 12,000 years ago, Paleo-Indians
Paleo-Indians were the first peoples who entered and subsequently inhabited the Americas towards the end of the Late Pleistocene period. The prefix ''paleo-'' comes from . The term ''Paleo-Indians'' applies specifically to the lithic period in ...
first settled in the Southern Appalachians, crafting stone projectile points
In archaeological terminology, a projectile point is an object that was hafted to a weapon that was capable of being thrown or projected, such as a javelin, dart, or arrow. They are thus different from weapons presumed to have been kept in the ...
from local materials, indicating their long-term inhabitance. However, evidence for residential activities in the highlands are absent prior to about 7,500 BCE, though the archaeological record does indicate hunting, flintworking, butchering, hideworking, and woodworking in the region.[ Throughout the Archaic period, Paleo-Indians adopted more advanced technologies such as ]textiles
Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
, basketry
Basket weaving (also basketry or basket making) is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into three-dimensional artifacts, such as baskets, mats, mesh bags or even furniture. Craftspeople and artists specialized in making baskets ...
, and the atlatl
A spear-thrower, spear-throwing lever, or ''atlatl'' (pronounced or ; Classical Nahuatl, Nahuatl ''ahtlatl'' ) is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in Dart (missile), dart or javelin-throwing, and includes a Plain bearing, b ...
and transitioned from hunter-gatherer activities towards an increasing reliance on fishing and the emergence of agriculture in lowlands. Human activities increased the dispersal of edible plants, including trees, shrubs, grasses, and lianas.[
Cultural developments accelerated with the adoption of agriculture in the highlands in the ]Middle Woodland period
In the classification of :category:Archaeological cultures of North America, archaeological cultures of North America, the Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures spanned a period from roughly 1000 BC to European contact i ...
, delayed relative to the lowlands by rugged terrain, low population, limited fertile soil, and a shorter growing season.[ As intensive plant husbandry expanded through the introduction of ]corn
Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...
, beans
A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are tradition ...
, pumpkin
A pumpkin is a cultivar, cultivated winter squash in the genus ''Cucurbita''. The term is most commonly applied to round, orange-colored squash varieties, but does not possess a scientific definition. It may be used in reference to many dif ...
, squash, and tobacco
Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
by around 1000 CE, more complex societies centered around permanent villages in Appalachian river valleys appeared.[ Meanwhile, human activity shaped the surrounding landscape into a patchwork of towns, farmsteads, fields, and primary forests for hunting and gathering.][
]
Colonial
Following European arrival in the region, native populations faced rapid decline due to both European intrusions and Old World diseases, leading to the disruption and collapse of many American Indian societies.[ European trade and exploration had further impacts, such as the introduction of iron tools, exotic plants and animals, and increasing conflicts between American Indians and Europeans. Due to depopulation, many abandoned fields were reclaimed by secondary forests.][ When restrictions on westward European settlement were lifted following the ]American Revolution
The American Revolution (1765–1783) was a colonial rebellion and war of independence in which the Thirteen Colonies broke from British America, British rule to form the United States of America. The revolution culminated in the American ...
, European migration increased and Euro-American communities began to grow.[ However, the resistance of American Indian groups like the Chickamauga Cherokee delayed expansion into much of the rainforested region until 1790.][
Roads were quickly built, and by the early 1800s the US had full control of the region.][ While valleys were farmed intensively, land use changed little in high-elevations, though European livestock were introduced.][ Similarly, most industry remained agricultural prior to the 1880s, though some logging and small-scale gold and copper mining began.] During this period, bounties on predators drove them to near-extinction, bison and elk were extirpated, and trapping
Animal trapping, or simply trapping or ginning, is the use of a device to remotely catch and often kill an animal. Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including for meat, fur trade, fur/feathers, sport hunting, pest control, and w ...
decimated fur-yielding species.[ Moreover, the vast majority of the ]Cherokee Nation
The Cherokee Nation ( or ) is the largest of three list of federally recognized tribes, federally recognized tribes of Cherokees in the United States. It includes people descended from members of the Cherokee Nation (1794–1907), Old Cheroke ...
were forced to move from their traditional homeland to Oklahoma during the Trail of Tears
The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of about 60,000 people of the " Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans and their black slaves within that were ethnically cleansed by the U ...
. However, about 9,000 members of the tribe continue to live inside the Qualla Boundary
The Qualla Boundary or The Qualla is territory held as a land trust by the United States government for the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI), who reside in Western North Carolina. The area is part of the large histori ...
, which lies within the rainforest biome.[
]
By the 1880s, Appalachia's natural resources had drawn the attention of industrialist Civil War veterans and vacationers from the North
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography.
Etymology
T ...
, buying up land and dramatically expanding the nascent railway system.[ While Appalachia is famous for its ]coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other Chemical element, elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal i ...
, mica
Micas ( ) are a group of silicate minerals whose outstanding physical characteristic is that individual mica crystals can easily be split into fragile elastic plates. This characteristic is described as ''perfect basal cleavage''. Mica is co ...
mining was far more dominant in rainforested areas, and logging remained generally confined to the valleys along significant rail lines.[ However, as outside investors bought up growing tracts of land and Appalachia's railroad system matured, increasing swathes of forest were cleared.][ By the 1900s and 1910s, even the spruce–fir forests of ]Mount Mitchell
Mount Mitchell (''Attakulla'' in Cherokee) is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland North America east of the Mississippi River. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina in the B ...
—the highest peak in the Appalachian Mountains—had begun being logged.[
]
The early 1900s were devastating for the rainforest landscape. Wolves, beavers, and mountain lions vanished; bear, turkey, and deer populations plummeted; and exotic invasives like chestnut blight
The pathogenic fungus ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America ...
, wild boar
The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...
, and rainbow trout
The rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') is a species of trout native to cold-water tributary, tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in North America and Asia. The steelhead (sometimes called steelhead trout) is an Fish migration#Classification, ...
were introduced.[ Contemporaneously, devastating flooding of the Monongahela and ]Ohio
Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...
Rivers in 1907 was attributed to clearing of upstream watersheds. Encouraged by these factors and the Appalachian National Park Association (founded in 1899), Congress
A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...
passed the Weeks Act
The Weeks Act is a federal law (36 Stat. 961) enacted by the United States Congress on March 1, 1911. Introduced by Massachusetts Congressman John W. Weeks and signed into law by President William Howard Taft, the law authorized the United Stat ...
in 1911 to enable the purchase of Federal lands
Federal lands are lands in the United States owned and managed by the federal government. Pursuant to the Property Clause of the United States Constitution ( Article 4, section 3, clause 2), Congress has the power to retain, buy, sell, and regu ...
in the Eastern United States.[ Beginning with the creation of the Pisgah National Forest in 1916, much of the rainforest area is now conserved.]
Threats
Fire
Wildfires are a natural ecological process that has occurred within the Southern Appalachian temperate rainforest for millennia and plays an important role in the Southern Appalachian temperate rainforest ecosystem. However, fire suppression instituted after European colonization has created two significant issues in the region: a higher risk of "catastrophic wildfires", and declines in the abundance of disturbance-dependent species like Table Mountain pine and woodpeckers
Woodpeckers are part of the bird family Picidae, which also includes the piculets, wrynecks and sapsuckers. Members of this family are found worldwide, except for Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Madagascar and the extreme polar regions. ...
. After the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, the National Park Service
The National Park Service (NPS) is an List of federal agencies in the United States, agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government, within the US Department of the Interior. The service manages all List ...
put increased effort into controlled burns "to invigorate a species or ecosystem that benefits from fire" and "reduce heavy accumulations of dead wood and brush which under drought conditions could produce catastrophic wildfires that threaten human life and valuable property."[ Natural wildfire is most frequent during the month of May in the ]rainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree Canopy (biology), canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropi ...
, when lightning is sometimes common depending on the year.[
]
Pollution and climate change
High peaks in the temperate rainforest have some of the highest air pollution of any region in the Eastern United States, with a 1999 study finding sulfate
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula . Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many ...
and nitrate
Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the chemical formula . salt (chemistry), Salts containing this ion are called nitrates. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all inorganic nitrates are solubility, soluble in wa ...
deposition 6–20 times higher than lower elevation sites. This is primarily due to pollutants from cars and coal plants settling in Appalachian valleys, trapped by the high mountain ridges.[ However, because this pollution is overwhelmingly deposited through acid fog, it is the wettest (highest) areas that receive the most pollution.] This deposition often has a pH below 4.0 and sometimes below 3.0, having significant impacts on tree cation
An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...
concentrations, potentially leading to dangerous nutrient deficiencies.[
Similarly, anthropogenic ]climate change
Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
will have numerous and varied impacts in the rainforest, which may be difficult to predict. These impacts will likely be felt in the relict high elevation spruce–fir forests that heavily rely on cold temperatures and near-constant fog.[ Any change in cloud patterns or height could significantly disrupt the cloud-based deposition this forest type relies on for up to 50% of their water budget, forcing them upslope until extirpation.] However, it has been hypothesized that higher elevations may be more resistant to climactic change.[ Similarly, climate change is predicted to increase the rate of wildfires and place more stress on existing forests, leading them more susceptible to current threats.][
]
Invasive species
Invasive species pose a significant risk to the landscape of the Appalachian temperate rainforest, with two major introduction events since the early 20th century. First, the chestnut blight
The pathogenic fungus ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America ...
emerged in Appalachia, decimating American chestnut
The American chestnut (''Castanea dentata'') is a large, fast-growing deciduous tree of the Fagaceae, beech family native to eastern North America. As is true of all species in the genus ''Chestnut, Castanea'', the American chestnut produces Bur ...
trees, a dominant species in the region. Originally a fungal pathogen introduced from Asia, the blight quickly spread, wiping out vast populations of mature chestnuts and dramatically altering the composition of forests across the Eastern US.[ While the trees once made up as much as 25% of hardwood forest stands, the American chestnut is now critically endangered and largely extirpated from its natural range.][
Similarly, the ]balsam woolly adelgid
The balsam woolly adelgid (''Adelges piceae'') is small wingless insect that infests and kills firs. In their native Europe they are a minor parasite on silver fir and Sicilian fir, but they have become a threat especially to balsam fir and ...
was introduced from Europe in the 20th century and devastated fraser fir stands on the rainforest's mountaintops. First discovered on Mount Mitchell
Mount Mitchell (''Attakulla'' in Cherokee) is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland North America east of the Mississippi River. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina in the B ...
in 1957, it quickly spread to all fir populations. Fir mortality in Appalachia rose by 1,600% by 1970, eventually killing two-thirds of adult trees.[ Initial efforts to control the adelgid largely failed, complicating repopulation efforts.][ Though there are signs of recovery in recent years—such as ]Kuwohi
Kuwohi (, also known as Clingmans Dome, its former official name) is a mountain in the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina in the Southeastern United States.
At an topographical summit, elevation of , it is the highest mountai ...
having three times more adult trees in 2020 than in the 1980s[—these threats to the forest are not independent and scientists warn climate change may lead to another adelgid outbreak. Kristine Johnson, supervisory forester at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, has suggested that warm winters and dry summers could support a resurgence of balsam woolly adelgid outbreaks.][
]
See also
* Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests
* Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest
* Cove (Appalachian Mountains) § Cove forest
References
{{portalbar, Environment, United States
Appalachian forests
Ecoregions of the United States
Temperate rainforests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the United States
Temperate coniferous forests of the United States
*
*
Blue Ridge Mountains
Natural history of the Great Smoky Mountains
Plant communities of the Eastern United States