Apocalypse Of Elijah
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The Apocalypse of Elijah is an early Christian work written in the
Coptic language Coptic () is a dormant language, dormant Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language. It is a group of closely related Egyptian dialects, representing the most recent developments of the Ancient Egyptian language, Egyptian language, and histori ...
commonly held to be a documentation of the oral presentation of multiple original and classical manuscripts. Presented in part as the direct word of the Hebrew God,
Yahweh Yahweh was an Ancient Semitic religion, ancient Semitic deity of Weather god, weather and List of war deities, war in the History of the ancient Levant, ancient Levant, the national god of the kingdoms of Kingdom of Judah, Judah and Kingdom ...
, to the biblical prophet
Elijah Elijah ( ) or Elias was a prophet and miracle worker who lived in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of King Ahab (9th century BC), according to the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible. In 1 Kings 18, Elijah defended the worsh ...
, from where its name is derived, the text includes a short commentary on some early Christian
fasting Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...
and
prayer File:Prayers-collage.png, 300px, alt=Collage of various religionists praying – Clickable Image, Collage of various religionists praying ''(Clickable image – use cursor to identify.)'' rect 0 0 1000 1000 Shinto festivalgoer praying in front ...
disciplines, a prophetic message about the kingdoms of
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...
and
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
, and accounts of the presentation of the
antichrist In Christian eschatology, Antichrist (or in broader eschatology, Anti-Messiah) refers to a kind of entity prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ and falsely substitute themselves as a savior in Christ's place before ...
, his encounters with Elijah and
Enoch Enoch ( ; ''Henṓkh'') is a biblical figure and Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch prior to Noah's flood, and the son of Jared (biblical figure), Jared and father of Methuselah. He was of the Antediluvian period in the Hebrew Bible. The text of t ...
, and his ultimate demise. Although it is given the title of apocalypse, it does not have many of the usual traits of a classical
apocalypse Apocalypse () is a literary genre originating in Judaism in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (597–587 BCE) but persisting in Christianity and Islam. In apocalypse, a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a ...
; yet, it ties together critical themes of apocalyptic literature such as kingdom
eschatology Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of Contemporary era, present age, human history, or the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic and non-Abrah ...
and antichrist imagery. There is another Apocalypse of Elijah dating from the 3rd–7th centuries ( Sefer Elijah or Sefer Eliahu) written in
Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...
to a
Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
audience, but it does not appear to share any significant similarities or inspiration from the Coptic, Christian work.Buttenwieser, Moses (1901). "Outline of the Neo-Hebraic Apocalyptic Literature." Cincinnati: Jennings & Pye. p. 30.


Title, author, and setting

Contrary to what the title would suggest, the Coptic text is not often formally considered to be an
apocalypse Apocalypse () is a literary genre originating in Judaism in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (597–587 BCE) but persisting in Christianity and Islam. In apocalypse, a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a ...
in genre, nor is it believed to be written or influenced by the biblical prophet Elijah.Wintermute (1983), p. 721. The prophet's inclusion twice within the text presents a likely origin for the name, though his mention is always immediately connected in proximity to the biblical figure of Enoch. Additionally, around the time of the manuscript’s potential origin within the Christian communities in
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
(discussed in detail below), there is evidence for the existence of multiple pseudepigraphic works attributed to the prophet Elijah, most famously referenced by the 4th century theologian
Didymus the Blind Didymus the Blind ( Coptic: ; 398), alternatively spelled Dedimus or Didymous, was a Christian theologian in the Church of Alexandria, where he taught for about half a century. He was a student of Origen, and, after the Second Council of Constant ...
.Frankfurter (1993), p. 43. These texts included another apocalyptic work elucidating a revelation to Elijah of the nature of hell, much in the same manner as the Apocalypses of Peter and of Paul. There is another text called the Apocalypse of Elijah that is referenced by both
Origen Origen of Alexandria (), also known as Origen Adamantius, was an Early Christianity, early Christian scholar, Asceticism#Christianity, ascetic, and Christian theology, theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Early cent ...
and
Jerome Jerome (; ; ; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known ...
, early Christian scholars, that was subject to debate concerning its relationship to
Paul the Apostle Paul, also named Saul of Tarsus, commonly known as Paul the Apostle and Saint Paul, was a Apostles in the New Testament, Christian apostle ( AD) who spread the Ministry of Jesus, teachings of Jesus in the Christianity in the 1st century, first ...
's first letter to the Corinthians.Wintermute (1983), p. 728. This debate arose around the section of : "which the eye has not seen, nor the ear heard," which Origen attributed first to the Apocalypse of Elijah while Jerome held that Paul likely did not cite the apocalypse. Whatever the case may be, this phrase is not found in any of the existing forms of the Apocalypse of Elijah and thus suggests an entirely separate variant. Whether this text is the very same as that detailing Elijah's journey through hell is unknown. Together, these pseudepigraphic works allude to a period of time in early
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
where Elijah was considered to be an important biblical figure and his name was associated with a number of circulating manuscripts. More specifically, there is reason to believe that early Egyptian Christian scribes, suspected first because of the existing Coptic renditions of the text, would have had both a literary basis and a religious basis for pseudonymously ascribing the work to Elijah. Firstly, there are a host of recessional documents and original texts coming from that era that establish a tradition of Elijah receiving revelations, putting him as a prime pseudonymous author. Secondly, there are stories of Egyptian Christians taking on the names of prophets such as Elijah in place of their own, and there are numerous monastic traditions of piety surrounding the life and 'monastic' practices of Elijah that paint a strong picture of Elijah as a significant religious figure in the Coptic tradition. Finally, within the text itself, in chapter 2, there are many references to Egypt as the site of many of the coming events predicted within the text, solidifying the notion that the authors were Christians living in Egypt at the time.


Date

The bulk of the text is commonly dated anywhere between the middle of the 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th century.Wintermute (1983), p. 729-730. The text is clearly influenced by Christian thinking, with references to Christian manuscripts such as Revelation that could have only become available past the middle of the 2nd century, yet the earliest known Coptic fragments date back to the beginning of the 4th century. Earlier dates stem from the notion that, given the reality that pieces of the text were likely originally written in GreekFrankfurter (1993), p. 23. and subsequently translated into Coptic, it is probable that there existed forms of a written text as early as the end of the 2nd century, later given oral manifestation in Egypt which was subsequently transcribed. The Apocalypse of Elijah is mentioned in the
Apostolic Constitutions The ''Apostolic Constitutions'' or ''Constitutions of the Holy Apostles'' (Latin: ''Constitutiones Apostolorum'') is a Christian collection divided into eight books which is classified among the Church Orders, a genre of early Christian litera ...
, the List of the Sixty Books, the Synopsis of Pseudo-Athanasius, the
Stichometry of Nicephorus The Stichometry of Nicephorus is a stichometry attributed to Patriarch Nicephorus I of Constantinople (c. 758-828). The work appears at the end of the ''Chronographikon Syntomon.'' It consists of a list of New Testament and Old Testament works c ...
, and the Armenian list of Mechithar establishing it firmly within this era of early Christianity.
Origen Origen of Alexandria (), also known as Origen Adamantius, was an Early Christianity, early Christian scholar, Asceticism#Christianity, ascetic, and Christian theology, theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Early cent ...
,
Ambrosiaster Ambrosiaster or Pseudo-Ambrose is the name given to the unknown author of a commentary on the epistles of Saint Paul, written some time between 366 and 384AD. The name "Ambrosiaster" in Latin means "would-be Ambrose". Various conjectures have b ...
, and
Euthalius Euthalius was a deacon of Alexandria and later Bishop of Sulca. He lived sometime between the 4th and 7th centuries and is chiefly known through his work on the New Testament in particular as the author of the "Euthalian Sections". Of Euthalius ...
ascribe
First Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians () is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author, Sosthenes, and is addressed to the Christian church i ...
2:9 to it:
Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.
If they are right, the apocalypse is pre-Pauline. The peculiar form in which this quotation appears in
Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theology, Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A ...
, '' Protrepticus'' x. 94, and the ''
Apostolic Constitutions The ''Apostolic Constitutions'' or ''Constitutions of the Holy Apostles'' (Latin: ''Constitutiones Apostolorum'') is a Christian collection divided into eight books which is classified among the Church Orders, a genre of early Christian litera ...
'' vii. 32, shows that both have the same source, probably this
apocalypse Apocalypse () is a literary genre originating in Judaism in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (597–587 BCE) but persisting in Christianity and Islam. In apocalypse, a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a ...
. Additionally, Epiphanius ascribes to this work Eph. 5:14, "Awake thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light." There is some question regarding the potential for the Coptic (and presumably the Greek) fragments to be drawing upon and re-interpreting a much earlier Jewish manuscript which could have been dated anywhere as early as the 1st century BCE; however, there is yet to be any significant evidence for the existence of such a text.Frankfurter (1993), pp. 17-18.


Genre

The content of the Apocalypse of Elijah only somewhat resembles any classical definition of an apocalypse. An apocalypse, according to historian
John J. Collins John Joseph Collins (born 1946, County Tipperary) is an Irish-born American biblical scholar, the Holmes Professor of Old Testament Criticism and Interpretation at Yale Divinity School. He is noted for his research in the Hebrew Bible, as wel ...
, can be defined as “a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world.” The Apocalypse of Elijah only loosely meets some of these specifications. For instance, there is no otherworldly creature to reveal the mysteries of the text to the author, at least not one that is stated in the text. Additionally, the temporo-spatial components are both relatively non-specific. However, though it may not fit into the ideal format, there are many aspects to the apocalypse which relate themselves to past apocalyptic works, including imagery of a figure who opposes Christ like the antichrist of the
Book of Revelation The Book of Revelation, also known as the Book of the Apocalypse or the Apocalypse of John, is the final book of the New Testament, and therefore the final book of the Bible#Christian Bible, Christian Bible. Written in Greek language, Greek, ...
,
resurrection Resurrection or anastasis is the concept of coming back to life after death. Reincarnation is a similar process hypothesized by other religions involving the same person or deity returning to another body. The disappearance of a body is anothe ...
from the dead, a
final judgement The Last Judgment is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the '' Frashokereti'' of Zoroastrianism. Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God of all people who have ever lived, res ...
, and the section on the martyrdom of Elijah and Enoch which mirrors very closely the two witnesses in Revelation 11. It is in its replication of a number of other apocalyptic manuscripts that the text comes to take on its reputation as an apocalypse in early antiquity.


Manuscript history

Two of the foundational Coptic texts of the Apocalypse of Elijah were edited and published by George Steindorff near the end of the 19th century, one of which was obtained from St.
Shenoute Shenoute of Atripe, also known as Shenoute the Great or Saint Shenoute the Archimandrite ( Coptic: ), was the abbot of the White Monastery in Egypt. He is considered a saint by the Oriental Orthodox Churches and is one of the most renowned sa ...
's
White Monastery The Coptic White Monastery (), also The Monastery of Abba Shenouda () and The Athribian Monastery () is a Coptic Orthodox monastery named after Saint Shenoute. It is located near the Upper Egyptian cities of Tahta and Sohag, and about south-ea ...
, has been dated to the early 4th century and contained the beginning and conclusion of the text, but was missing most of the middle portion.Frankfurter (1993), pp. 21–22. Another incredibly important manuscript dated to the 4th or 5th century is that published through the
Chester Beatty Library The Chester Beatty Library, now known as the Chester Beatty, is a museum and library in Dublin. It was established in Ireland in 1953, to house the collections of mining magnate, Sir Alfred Chester Beatty. The present museum, on the grounds of ...
, which to this day is the most complete variant of the text to be discovered. There exists a
papyrus Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, ''Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'' or ''papyruses'') can a ...
fragment dated to 4th century which is written in
ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
and includes only a small section of the end of the Apocalypse of Elijah. Additionally, this Greek text does not entirely overlap any of the other manuscripts discovered, which suggests that it may be an iteration of an earlier alternative Greek manuscript.


Textual outline

Notable translations of the Apocalypse of Elijah include that of O. S. Wintermute in his chapter in ''The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha'' and the original translation of
Albert Pietersma Albert Pietersma (September 28, 1935 – March 25, 2025) was a Dutch-Canadian philologist and academic who was professor emeritus of Septuagint and Hellenistic Greek in the Department of Near and Middle East Civilizations at the University of T ...
and Susan Turner Cornstock with Harold W. Attridge, which is available through the Chester Beatty Library. # God’s word on salvation, his true sons, and fasting ## God’s addresses the people through the presumed author (1:1–2) ## The Lord enacts His salvation and mercy through His Son (1:37) ## God’s plans for those who obey Him and for the sinners is revealed (1:8–12) ### God’s sons are taken to heaven, while the sinners are given to death ## The wise men are warned of deceivers who speak lies about the practice of fasting (1:13–14) ## Rules and reasons are given for fasting (1:15–22) ### Fasting is presented as a blessing to man, with the capability to heal and cast out demons ### Warnings are given against impure fasting ## The audience is implored to remain single-minded in the Lord (1:23–27) # The fate of Assyria and Egypt ## The king of Assyria, also called the king of injustice, brings disruption to Egypt (2:1–5) ## “The king of peace” kills the king of injustice, creates a false peace, and establishes the heathens (2:6–16) ## The king and his two sons capture the saints and offer unrighteous sacrifices (2:17–28) ## An account of the tragedies which will befall Egypt (2:29–38) ### Violence against poor ceases and the markets are silenced ### The people will desire death but not die ### Nursing women and mothers will grieve while virgins rejoice over their barrenness ## The Persians kill the Assyrian king, the saints are restored to abundance, and the dead are commanded to rise (2:39–53) # The son of lawlessness presented ## The son of lawlessness falsely calls himself “the Christ” (3:1) ## Signs of the true Christ (3:2-4) ### Comes with the sign of the cross ### Surrounded by angels ## Deceptive signs of the son of lawlessness (3:5-11) ### Physical wonders ### Miracles of healing and casting out demons ## True signs of the lawlessness (3:12-18) ### Cannot give life ### “Tuft of gray hair at the front of his bald head” ### Shifting ages from young to old # The virgin, Elijah, and Enoch shame the son of lawlessness ## Tabitha, the virgin, scolds the son of lawlessness up to Jerusalem, is killed by him only to rise again and become a source of healing blood to the people (4:1-6) ## Elijah and Enoch appear to fight and argue with the son of lawlessness (4:7-12) ## The shameless one kills Elijah and Enoch in the market place (4:13-14) ## Elijah and Enoch are resurrected and taunt the son of lawlessness (4:15-16) ## The son of lawlessness retaliates by torturing and killing the saints of the land, save only a few survivors who flee (4:17-24) ## The Lord receives and resurrects those who have died and grants them favor and rule (4:25-30) ## The saints return to fight the son of lawlessness, who grows angry and burns the righteous ones (4:31-33) # Christ battles the son of lawlessness and God brings final judgment ## Many see the deception of the son of lawlessness (5:1) ## Christ sends angels to the earth who strengthen the saints and grant them access to the tree of life (5:2-6) ## The earth is disturbed and the waters dry up (5:7-9) ## Those deceived by the son of lawlessness cry out against him and seek to worship the righteous one (5:10-14) ## The son of lawlessness makes his final threats against the saints (5:15-20) ## The angels come to earth and the Lord sends fire to consume the sinners and devils (5:21-23) ## YHWH begins his “true judgment” (5:24-31) ### Sinners meet their sins where they were committed ### Saints will see the place of torment and sinners will see the righteous place ### YHWH judges both heaven and earth, shepherd and flock ## Elijah and Enoch return to finally kill the son of lawlessness and case him into the abyss (5:32-35) ## Christ and the saints come from heaven to spend a thousand years upon the earth before burning it to create a new heaven and new earth (5:36-39)


Theological backgrounds and themes

To discuss the theological themes of the Apocalypse of Elijah is a difficult task, as its origin, date, and purpose are all subjects of debate. The text seamlessly weaves in both Christian and Jewish themes that makes it hard to discern which section ascribes to which line of thinking. Generally, there are strong themes of false leadership and the signs of the saints vs. that of the sinners throughout the text, from warnings given to the "wise men of the land" against the "deceivers" in 1:13 to the 'sinners' in 5:11 grieving because they believed the false signs of the son of lawlessness. In this same vein, some of the signs of the true Christ are also presented in chapter 2, such as his arrival being heralded by hosts of angels or his ability to raise the dead. The work also introduces the concept of marks which identify the people who belong to God, found on both their foreheads and wrists, which are mentioned in both 1:9 and 5:4. There markings are reminiscent of the seals of the
144,000 144,000 is a natural number with significance in Christianity. Religion Christianity Book of Revelation The number 144,000 appears three times in the Book of Revelation: * Revelation 7:3–8: * Revelation 14:1: * Revelation 14:3–5: The n ...
from Revelation 7:3-4. There are also very clear references to the idea of resurrection throughout the text, which was a very proliferative concept in early Christian apocalyptic literature, such as Revelation, but which had previously found tremendous traction in the Jewish apocalyptic texts such as
Daniel Daniel commonly refers to: * Daniel (given name), a masculine given name and a surname * List of people named Daniel * List of people with surname Daniel * Daniel (biblical figure) * Book of Daniel, a biblical apocalypse, "an account of the acti ...
, the
Book of Enoch The Book of Enoch (also 1 Enoch; Hebrew language, Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ, ''Sēfer Ḥănōḵ''; , ) is an Second Temple Judaism, ancient Jewish Apocalyptic literature, apocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to the Patriar ...
, and later works such as
2 Baruch 2 Baruch is a Jewish apocryphal text thought to have been written in the late 1st century CE or early 2nd century CE, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. It is attributed to the biblical figure Baruch ben Neriah (c. 6th century BC) ...
and
4 Ezra 2 Esdras, also called 4 Esdras, Latin Esdras, or Latin Ezra, is an apocalyptic book in some English versions of the Bible. Tradition ascribes it to Ezra, a scribe and priest of the fifth century BC, whom the book identifies with the sixth-ce ...
. In the Apocalypse of Elijah, resurrection manifests in a few distinct ways. The first instance, and by far the strangest, is found in 2:53, where the "remnant" recently freed by the
Persians Persians ( ), or the Persian people (), are an Iranian ethnic group from West Asia that came from an earlier group called the Proto-Iranians, which likely split from the Indo-Iranians in 1800 BCE from either Afghanistan or Central Asia. They ...
approach the dead and say, "Rise up and be with us in this rest." Whether these dead do in fact rise is undisclosed, yet it is significant that it is not often humans are raising humans in these apocalyptic texts. There is also a section, 3:12, which mentions that the son of lawlessness does not have the power to raise the dead as the Christ did. Stories of the resurrection of the saints in chapter 4:27, as well as of Tabitha the virgin and Elijah and Enoch in chapter 4 reflect clear Christian themes of
martyrdom A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In colloqui ...
. This tradition of literary depictions of martyrdom became popular early on in the history of the church and tended to serve as a sort of sign of the end of days. A section in Chapter 5 is considered by some scholars to reference the original
Apocalypse of Peter The Apocalypse of Peter, also called the Revelation of Peter, is an early Christian text of the 2nd century and a work of apocalyptic literature. It is the earliest-written extant work depicting a Christian account of heaven and hell in detail ...
, as 5:27-29 seemingly discusses how the righteous may ask for the salvation of sinners in torment, and an act of grace will occur.


Figures in the Apocalypse of Elijah


See also

*
Apocalypse of Paul The Apocalypse of Paul (, literally "Revelation of Paul"; more commonly known in the Latin tradition as the or ) is a fourth-century non-canonical apocalypse and part of the New Testament apocrypha. The full original Greek version of the Apoc ...
*
Apocalyptic literature Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post- Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. '' Apocalypse'' () is a Greek word meaning "revelation", "an unveiling or unfolding o ...
*
Revelation of John The Book of Revelation, also known as the Book of the Apocalypse or the Apocalypse of John, is the final book of the New Testament, and therefore the final book of the Christian Bible. Written in Greek, its title is derived from the first w ...
* The Apocalypse of Peter


References


Bibliography

* Frankfurter, David (1993). "Elijah in Upper Egypt: The Apocalypse of Elijah and Early Egyptian Christianity" (Studies in Antiquity and Christianity). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3106-4. *


External links


Apocalypse of Elijah
at earlyjewishwritings.com {{DEFAULTSORT:Apocalypse of Elijah 2nd-century Christian texts 3rd-century Christian texts 4th-century Christian texts Elijah Old Testament pseudepigrapha