''Apistogramma'' is a large

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

freshwater fish Freshwater fish are fish species that spend some or all of their lives in bodies of fresh water such as rivers, lakes, ponds and inland wetlands, where the salinity is less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine habitats in many wa ...

in the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Cichlidae Cichlids () are a large, diverse, and widespread family of percomorph fish in the family Cichlidae, order Cichliformes. At least 1,760 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families, with on ...

native to

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...

, but also commonly kept in

aquariums An aquarium (: aquariums or aquaria) is a vivarium of any size having at least one transparent side in which aquatic plants or animals are kept and displayed. fishkeeping, Fishkeepers use aquaria to keep fish, invertebrates, amphibians, aquati ...

. They are

dwarf cichlid Dwarf cichlid is a term used by fishkeeping hobbyists to describe an arbitrary assemblage of small-sized fish from the family Cichlidae. Although the grouping is widely used in the aquarium industry and hobby, the grouping has no taxonomic or eco ...

s that mostly feed on tiny animals and have breeding behaviors that vary depending on the exact species.

Range, conservation status and habitat

''Apistogramma'' are exclusively found in tropical and subtropical South America in the lowlands east of the

Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...

. The highest richness is in the western

Amazon Basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributary, tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries ...

and Orinoco Basin, but there are also species in the Guianan Shield, eastern Amazon Basin, rivers flowing into the Atlantic in northern Brazil (

Tocantins Tocantins () is one of the 26 states of Brazil. It is the newest state, formed in 1988 and encompassing what had formerly been the northern two-fifths of the state of Goiás. Tocantins covers and had an estimated population of 1,496,880 in 2014 ...

– Araguaia to

Parnaíba Parnaíba () is a city in the Brazilian state of Piauí. Having a population of over 169,000 inhabitants according to IBGE's 2024 estimates, it is the second most populous city in the state, after the capital Teresina. It is one of the four coast ...

) and the

Río de la Plata Basin The Río de la Plata basin (, ), more often called the River Plate basin in scholarly writings, sometimes called the Platine basin or Platine region, is the Hydrography, hydrographical area in South America that drains to the Río de la Plata. I ...

.Kullander, S.O., and E.J.G. Ferreira (2005). Two new species of Apistogramma Regan (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the rio Trombetas, Pará State, Brazil. Neotrop. ichthyol. 3(3). Although a few species are widespread, most members of this genus have small ranges.Tougard, C., C.R.G. Dávila, U. Römer, F. Duponchelle, F. Cerqueira, E. Paradis, B. Guinand, C.A. Chávez, V. Salas, S. Quérouil, S. Sirvas, and J.-F. Renno (2017). Tempo and rates of diversification in the South American cichlid genus Apistogramma (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae). PLoS ONE 12(9): e0182618. Few members of the genus have been evaluated by the

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status ...

, mostly either ranking as

least concern A least-concern species is a species that has been evaluated and categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as not being a focus of wildlife conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wil ...

(not threatened) or

data deficient A data deficient (DD) species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as offering insufficient information for a proper assessment of conservation status to be made. This does not necessaril ...

(limited available data prevents an evaluation), but some of the highly localized ''Apistogramma'' species likely are

threatened A threatened species is any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which is vulnerable to extinction in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensatio ...

.Römer, U., Duponchelle, F., Vela Diaz, A., Garcia Davilla, C., Sirvas, S., Diaz Catchay, C. & Renno, J.-F. (2011)
''Apistogramma cinilabra'' sp. n.: Description of a potentially endangered endemic cichlid species (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae) from the Departamento Loreto, Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 61 (1): 3-23.''Römer, U., Soares, D.P., García Dávila, C.R., Duponchelle, F., Renno, J.-F. & Hahn, I. (2015)
Re-description of ''Apistogramma payaminonis'' Kullander, 1986, with descriptions of two new cichlid species of the genus ''Apistogramma'' (Teleostei, Perciformes, Geophaginae) from northern Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 65 (3): 305–332.'' Primary threats to their survival are

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. Ab ...

(causing changes in their

microhabitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...

) and pollution (for example by oil drilling or mining). ''Apistogramma'' generally inhabit streams, or edges of rivers or lakes. Most prefer sheltered habitats with

leaf litter Plant litter (also leaf litter, tree litter, soil litter, litterfall, or duff) is dead plant material (such as leaves, bark, needles, twigs, and cladodes) that has fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead organic material and its constituen ...

on the bottom in water with little movement and a shallow depth, up to about , although a few species occur deeper, in fast-flowing water, in more open habitats or at the surface among floating plants.Staeck, W., and I. Schindler (2019). Apistogramma psammophila – a new geophagine dwarf cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the Rio Atabapo drainage in Colombia and Venezuela. Vertebrate Zoology 69(1): 103-110.

Appearance

''Apistogramma'' are

s with adults reaching between in

standard length Fish measurement is the measuring of individual fish and various parts of fish anatomy, their anatomies, for data used in many areas of ichthyology, including Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy and fishery biology. Overall length Standard length (SL) is ...

depending on species. Most species are strongly

sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...

, with males generally larger than females and possessing different color patterns than the females (which at least when breeding are most frequently yellow with blackish markings); in a few species this pattern is reversed or the sexes are rather similar.Rodrigues, R.R., J. Zuanon, K. Del-Claro, and L.N. Carvalho (2012). Reproductive behavior of the Amazonian dwarf cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae Kullander, 1982: offsetting costs and benefits. Acta Ethologica 15(1): 1-7. . Additionally, they often change color depending on behavior, for example when looking for food, breeding or during aggressive encounters.Rodrigues, R.R., L.N. Carvalho, J. Zuanon, and K. Del-Claro (2009). Color changing and behavioral context in the Amazonian Dwarf Cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae (Perciformes). Neotrop. ichthyol. 7(4). A few species, including '' A. agassizii'', '' A. cacatuoides'', '' A hongsloi'' and '' A. macmasteri'', have been

selectively bred Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant ma ...

by aquarists to achieve brighter colors than the natural, wild forms.

Behavior

''Apistogramma'' are

omnivore An omnivore () is an animal that regularly consumes significant quantities of both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize t ...

s, but tending towards micropredatory. Their main food items consist of aquatic insect

larvae A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect developmental biology, development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typical ...

and other small

invertebrate Invertebrates are animals that neither develop nor retain a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''spine'' or ''backbone''), which evolved from the notochord. It is a paraphyletic grouping including all animals excluding the chordata, chordate s ...

fish fry A fish fry is a social event containing battered or breaded fried fish. It usually also includes french fries, coleslaw, macaroni salad, lemon slices, tartar sauce, hot sauce, malt vinegar and dessert. Some Native American versions are cooked ...

algae Algae ( , ; : alga ) is an informal term for any organisms of a large and diverse group of photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms that are not plants, and includes species from multiple distinct clades. Such organisms range from unicellular ...

and plant debris. Brood care is highly developed, as in most cichlids. Nearly all ''Apistogramma'' species

spawn Spawn or spawning may refer to: * Spawning, the eggs and sperm of aquatic animals Arts, entertainment and media * Spawn (character), a fictional character in the comic series of the same name and in the associated franchise ** ''Spawn: Armageddon' ...

in crevices (small caves), typically in holes in sunken logs or branches, or in

aggregations. A number of breeding strategies exist in the genus. Some species breed in

polygamous Polygamy (from Late Greek , "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, it is called polygyny. When a woman is married to more than one h ...

harems, while other species form

monogamous Monogamy ( ) is a relationship of two individuals in which they form a mutual and exclusive intimate partnership. Having only one partner at any one time, whether for life or serial monogamy, contrasts with various forms of non-monogamy (e.g. ...

pairs. Three of the described species, '' A. barlowi'', '' A. megastoma'' and '' A. pantalone'', practice

mouthbrooding Mouthbrooding, also known as oral incubation and buccal incubation, is the care given by some groups of animals to their offspring by holding them in the mouth of the parent for extended periods of time. Although mouthbrooding is performed by a va ...

, either by both parents or only by the female. In most cases, regardless of the breeding strategy, the female is more highly involved with care of the eggs and fry, whilst the male defends a territory from predators. The sex of the fry is affected by the water conditions: In all species where it has been studied warmer water results in more males and in some species more acidic water (lower pH) also results in more males.Römer, U., and W. Beisenherz (1996). Environmental determination of sex in Apistogramma (Cichlidae) and two other freshwater fishes (Teleostei). Journal of Fish Biology 48(4): 714-725. Ospina-Álvarez, N., and F. Piferrer (2008). Temperature-dependent sex determination in fish revisited: Prevalence, a single sex ratio response pattern, and possible effects of climate change. PLoS One 3(7): e2837.

Taxonomy and species

Apistogramma allpahuayo Schwarzkinn-Zwergbuntbarsch

''Apistogramma'' is part of

Geophagini Geophagini is a Tribe (biology), tribe of cichlids from the subfamily Cichlinae, the American cichlids. It is the sister taxon to the clade which includes the Cichlasomatini and Heroini. Fishes in the Geophagini are distributed from Panama south ...

and its closest relatives are '' Apistogrammoides'' and '' Taeniacara''.López-Fernández, H., R.L. Honeycutt, M.L.J. Stiassny, and K.O. Winemiller (2005). Morphology, molecules, and character congruence in the phylogeny of South American geophagine cichlids (Perciformes, Labroidei). Zoologica Scripta 34(6): 627–651. There are currently 93 recognized ''Apistogramma'' species, making it the most species-rich genus of cichlid in the Americas, together with '' Crenicichla''. New species of ''Apistogramma'' are regularly described, and

undescribed species In taxonomy, an undescribed taxon is a taxon (for example, a species) that has been discovered, but not yet formally described and named. The various Nomenclature Codes specify the requirements for a new taxon to be validly described and named. U ...

—sometimes cryptic—are known to exist in the genus.Carvalho, A.P.C., R.A. Collins, J.G. Martínez, I.P. Farias, and T. Hrbek (2019). From shallow to deep divergences: mixed messages from Amazon Basin cichlids. Hydrobiologia 832(1): 317–329. Several of the recognized species occur in more than one form, and some of these actually may represent separate species, as appears to be the case for the "Papagayo" and "Pebás" forms, both typically included in ''A. ortegai''. A comprehensive

taxonomic 280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and the allocation ...

review of the genus is necessary. The genus is sometimes divided into subgroups based on the appearance and

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical dat ...

relationship of the various species. * '' Apistogramma acrensis'' Staeck, 2003 * ''

Apistogramma agassizii ''Apistogramma agassizii'', commonly known as Agassiz's dwarf cichlid, is a species of cichlid found in the Marañón River, Marañón and Ucayali River in Peru, some tributaries of the Amazon River, as well as downstream to the estuary in the At ...

'' (

Steindachner Franz Steindachner (11 November 1834 in Vienna – 10 December 1919 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist. He published over 200 papers on fishes and over 50 papers on reptiles and amphibians. Steindachner descri ...

, 1875) * '' Apistogramma aguarico''

Römer The Römer (German surname, "Roman") is a medieval building in the Altstadt of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and one of the city's most important landmarks. The Römer is located opposite the Old St. Nicholas Church and has been the city hall ( ...

& Hahn, 2013Römer, U. & Hahn, I. (2013)
''Apistogramma aguarico'' sp. n.: A new species of geophagine cichlid fish (Teleostei: Perciformes) from the Ecuadorian and Peruvian río Napo system.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 63 (2): 171-181.'' * '' Apistogramma alacrina'' S. O. Kullander, 2004 * '' Apistogramma allpahuayo''

et. al, 2012Römer, U., Beninde, J., Duponchelle, F., Vela Díaz, A., Ortega, H., Hahn, I., Soares, D.P., Díaz Cachay, C., García Dávila, C.R., Sirvas Cornejo, S. & Renno, J.-F. (2012)
Description of ''Apistogramma allpahuayo'' sp. n., a new dwarf cichlid species (Teleostei: Perciformes: Geophaginae) from in and around the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo Mishana, Loreto, Peru.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 62 (2): 189–212.'' * '' Apistogramma amoena'' (

Cope A cope ( ("rain coat") or ("cape")) is a liturgical long mantle or cloak, open at the front and fastened at the breast with a band or clasp. It may be of any liturgical colour. A cope may be worn by any rank of the Catholic or Anglican clerg ...

, 1872) * '' Apistogramma angayuara'' S. O. Kullander & E. F. G. Ferreira, 2005 * '' Apistogramma arua''

& Warzel, 1998 * '' Apistogramma atahualpa''

, 1997 * '' Apistogramma baenschi''

, Hahn,

, Soares & Wöhler, 2004 * '' Apistogramma barlowi''

& Hahn, 2008 * '' Apistogramma bitaeniata'' Pellegrin, 1936 * '' Apistogramma borellii'' ( Regan, 1906) * '' Apistogramma brevis'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * ''

Apistogramma cacatuoides ''Apistogramma cacatuoides'' or the cockatoo dwarf cichlid is a South American cichlid and the ''Apistogramma'' species most commonly bred in captivity. Characteristics The male cockatoo dwarf cichlid reaches a body length of 8 centimetres. The ...

'' Hoedeman, 1951 * '' Apistogramma caetei'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma caudomaculata'' Mesa_Salazar &

Lasso A lasso or lazo ( or ), also called reata or la reata in Mexico, and in the United States riata or lariat (from Mexican Spanish lasso for roping cattle), is a loop of rope designed as a restraint to be thrown around a target and tightened when ...

, 2011 * '' Apistogramma cinilabra''

et. al, 2011 * '' Apistogramma commbrae'' ( Regan, 1906) * '' Apistogramma cruzi'' S. O. Kullander, 1986 * '' Apistogramma diplotaenia'' S. O. Kullander, 1987 * '' Apistogramma eleutheria'' Varella & Britzke, 2016Varella, H.R. & Britzke, R. (2016)
''Apistogramma eleutheria'' and ''A. flavipedunculata'', two new species of dwarf cichlids from the rio Curuá on Serra do Cachimbo, Brazil (Teleostei: Cichlidae).
''Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 27 (1): 81-95.'' * '' Apistogramma elizabethae'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * '' Apistogramma eremnopyge''

Ready Ready may refer to: Film and television * ''Ready'', a 2002 British short starring Imelda Staunton * Ready (2008 film), ''Ready'' (2008 film), an Indian Telugu-language film by Srinu Vaitla ** Uthamaputhiran (2010 film), ''Uthamaputhiran'' (201 ...

& S. O. Kullander, 2004 * '' Apistogramma erythrura'' Staeck & I. Schindler, 2008 * '' Apistogramma eunotus'' S. O. Kullander, 1981 * '' Apistogramma feconat''

et. al, 2015 * '' Apistogramma flabellicauda'' Mesa-Salazar &

, 2011 * '' Apistogramma flavipedunculata'' Varella & Britzke, 2016 * '' Apistogramma geisleri'' Meinken, 1971 * '' Apistogramma gephyra'' S. O. Kullander, 1980 * ''

Apistogramma gibbiceps ''Apistogramma'' is a large genus of freshwater fish in the family Cichlidae native to South America, but also commonly kept in aquariums. They are dwarf cichlids that mostly feed on tiny animals and have breeding behaviors that vary depending ...

'' Meinken, 1969 * '' Apistogramma gossei'' S. O. Kullander, 1982 * '' Apistogramma guttata'' Antonio C., S. O. Kullander & Lasso A., 1989 * '' Apistogramma helkeri'' Schindler & Staeck, 2013Schindler, I. & Staeck, W. (2013)
Description of ''Apistogramma helkeri'' sp. n., a new geophagine dwarf cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the lower río Cuao (Orinoco drainage) in Venezuela.
''Vertebrate Zoology, 63 (3): 301-306.'' * '' Apistogramma hippolytae'' S. O. Kullander, 1982 * '' Apistogramma hoignei'' Meinken, 1965 * ''

Apistogramma hongsloi ''Apistogramma hongsloi'' is a species of dwarf cichlid fish, native to the Orinoco basin in South America. They are often kept in the aquariums and prefer to have soft, acidic water. Characteristics It is one of the more colorful ''Apistogramma ...

'' S. O. Kullander, 1979 * '' Apistogramma huascar''

, Pretor & Hahn, 2006 * '' Apistogramma inconspicua'' S. O. Kullander, 1983 * '' Apistogramma iniridae'' S. O. Kullander, 1979 * '' Apistogramma inornata'' Staeck, 2003 * '' Apistogramma intermedia'' Mesa-Salazar &

, 2011 * '' Apistogramma juruensis'' S. O. Kullander, 1986 * '' Apistogramma kullanderi'' Varella & Sabaj Pérez, 2014Varella, H.R. & Sabaj Pérez, M.H. (2014)
A titan among dwarfs: ''Apistogramma kullanderi'', new species (Teleostei: Cichlidae).
''Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 25 (3): 243-258.'' * '' Apistogramma lineata'' Mesa-Salazar &

, 2011 * '' Apistogramma linkei'' Koslowski, 1985 * '' Apistogramma luelingi'' S. O. Kullander, 1976 * ''

Apistogramma macmasteri ''Apistogramma macmasteri'' is a dwarf cichlid in the tribe Geophagini, one of the tribes of the subfamily of American cichlids, the Cichlinae. It is a freshwater fish that lives in the rivers Guaytiquía and Metica in the Meta River system. Th ...

'' S. O. Kullander, 1979 * '' Apistogramma martini''

, Hahn,

, Soares & Wöhler, 2003 * '' Apistogramma megaptera'' Mesa Salazar &

, 2011Mesa Salazar, L.M. & Lasso, C.A. (2011)
''Apistogramma megaptera'' (Perciformes: Cichlidae), una nueva especie para la cuenca del Orinoco.
''Biota Colombiana, 12 (1): 19-30.'' * '' Apistogramma megastoma''