Antonio da Rho (1395–1447) was a

Milan Milan ( , , ; ) is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, the largest city in Italy by urban area and the List of cities in Italy, second-most-populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of nea ...

ese

Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent Religious institute, religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor bei ...

humanist Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humanism" ha ...

. Rho studied rhetoric and theology in

Padua Padua ( ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Veneto, northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Padua. The city lies on the banks of the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice and southeast of Vicenza, and has a population of 20 ...

between 1414 and 1423. From 1423, he taught theology in Milan. After 1430, he held a chair in rhetoric. He also served as a court orator to Duke

Filippo Maria Visconti Filippo Maria Visconti (3 September 1392 – 13 August 1447) was the duke of Duchy of Milan, Milan from 1412 to 1447. Reports stated that he was "paranoid", but "shrewd as a ruler." He went to war in the 1420s with Romagna, Republic of Florenc ...

. In 1436, he attended the

Council of Basel The Council of Florence is the seventeenth ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church, held between 1431 and 1445. It was convened in territories under the Holy Roman Empire. Italy became a venue of a Catholic ecumenical council aft ...

because of his knowledge of

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

and

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

. Rho read widely in the classics, wrote many works and engaged in several high-profile controversies. He is known for his friendship with

Lorenzo Valla Lorenzo Valla (; also latinized as Laurentius; 1 August 1457) was an Italian Renaissance humanist, rhetorician, educator and scholar. He is best known for his historical-critical textual analysis that proved that the Donation of Constantine w ...

, which soured into an exchange of insults. Between 1429 and 1432, he attacked Antonio Beccadelli's ''Hermaphroditus''. He wrote an ''Apology'' to defend his learning against Franciscan critics and a set of three dialogues wherein he criticizes the theology of

Lactantius Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius () was an early Christian author who became an advisor to Roman emperor Constantine I, guiding his Christian religious policy in its initial stages of emergence, and a tutor to his son Crispus. His most impo ...

Life

Of humble origins, Rho received an early education under around 1402. Rho joined the

Franciscan Order The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent Religious institute, religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor bei ...

at the age of eighteen in 1413. A native of

, he probably joined at

San Francesco Grande The Church of San Francesco Grande (in Italian: ''Chiesa di San Francesco Grande'') was an ancient Church (building), church in Milan built in the 4th century and demolished in 1806. It was originally called ''Basilica di San Nabore'' after the ...

. As a

postulant A postulant (from , "to ask") was originally one who makes a request or demand; hence, a candidate. The use of the term is now generally restricted to those asking for admission into a Christian monastery or a religious order for the period precedi ...

, he studied dialectic in

from 1414 to 1417. One of his first teachers was Jacopo da Forlì. He studied theology at the convent of Sant'Antonio in Padua, graduating with a master's degree in 1423. He immediately took up a professorship of theology at San Francesco Grande, where he taught for the rest of his life. In 1427, he was passed over for appointment to an open chair of theology at

Milan Cathedral Milan Cathedral ( ; ), or Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica of the Nativity of Saint Mary (), is the cathedral church of Milan, Lombardy, Italy. Dedicated to the Nativity of Mary, Nativity of St. Mary (), it is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdi ...

. In 1430, he succeeded to Gasparino Barzizza's chair of rhetoric at San Francesco. Rho subsequently left Milan on only three known occasions. In 1425, he visited his sister in

Brescia Brescia (, ; ; or ; ) is a city and (municipality) in the region of Lombardy, in Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometers from the lakes Lake Garda, Garda and Lake Iseo, Iseo. With a population of 199,949, it is the se ...

. Sometime before 1428, he visited the Visconti Library in

Pavia Pavia ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, in Northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino (river), Ticino near its confluence with the Po (river), Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was a major polit ...

. Between 1429 and 1432, he engaged in polemics, including exchanges of

epigram An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable, sometimes surprising or satirical statement. The word derives from the Greek (, "inscription", from [], "to write on, to inscribe"). This literary device has been practiced for over two millennia ...

s, with Antonio Beccadelli over the latter's erotic ''Hermaphroditus'', which he considered bad art. Sometime before 1430, he began serving as the court orator of Duke

, delivering the annual oration on the anniversary of his accession (June 16). He was still performing this service as late as about 1444. In 1433,

praised his secular learning and spiritual wisdom. He made Rho the model of Christian preaching in his . In 1436, Rho attended the

as one "proficient in both languages". In 1439, he was a ducal judge dlegate in a case involving the

Humiliati The Humiliati (Italian ) were an Italian religious order of men formed probably in the 12th century. It was suppressed by a papal bull in 1571 though an associated order of women continued into the 20th century. Origin The origin of the order of ...

. In 1444, he gave the funeral oration for the mercenary captain

Niccolò Piccinino Niccolò Piccinino (1386 – 15 October 1444) was an Italian condottiero. He began his career in the mercenary company of Braccio da Montone, reaching the rank of commander of the company after Braccios death in 1424. He spent most of his career ...

. In 1445, Nicolò Arcimboldi wrote to Rho claiming that "all who contemplate the salvation of their soul flock to you alone as though to the city's oracle." In 1446, he was one of a small group of spiritual advisors to Filippo Maria Visconti during a crisis of conscience. Rho's health is recorded as failing in 1444–1446. He probably died in 1447, although older sources often give a date of 1450. He was deceased when

Flavio Biondo Flavio Biondo (Latin Flavius Blondus) (1392 – June 4, 1463) was an Italian Renaissance humanist historian. He was one of the first historians to use a three-period division of history (Ancient, Medieval, Modern) and is known as one of the ...

wrote his ''Italia illustrata'' in 1453.

Works

Rho's works in

include: * pology against a Certain Archdeacon and his Loathsome Sycophant Accomplices(1428) * (1430–1431) * (1431–1436) * enealogy of the Scipios and Catos(by 1432) * hilippic against Antonio Panormita(1432) * or (1433–1443) * (1433–1443) * hetorical Imitations(1433–1443) * hree Dialogues against Lactantius(1442–1445) * * * In addition, there survives a manuscript fragment of a

quodlibeta During the Middle Ages, ''quodlibeta'' were public disputations in which scholars debated questions "about anything" (''de quolibet'') posed by the audience. The practice originated in the theological faculty of the University of Paris around 1230. ...

l disputation, nine orations, over twelve letters and some poems. Rho also translated

Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is ''De vita Caesarum'', common ...

' ''

Lives of the Caesars ''De vita Caesarum'' (Latin; "About the Life of the Caesars"), commonly known as ''The Twelve Caesars'' or ''The Lives of the Twelve Caesars'', is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire writte ...

'' into the Italian vernacular. The , a biography of

Homer Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...

, has sometimes been attributed to Rho. It is actually the work of his friend,

Pier Candido Decembrio Pietro (also known as Pier and Piero) Candido Decembrio (in Latin, Petrus Candidus Decembrius) (1399–1477) was an Italian humanist and author of the Renaissance, and one of those involved in the rediscovery of ancient literature. Life The son ...

, dedicated to Rho.

''Apology''

The ''Apology'' was written in 1428 in response to his being passed over for the chair in theology at Milan Cathedral. The Milanese clergy considered him too ignorant in theology because of his devotion to humanistic learning (). In the ''Apology'', Rho describes becoming "enthralled" to the humanities during his time in Padua. He provides an account of authors and works he had read, both ancient and modern, among them: *

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

, ''

Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse ( trivium) along with grammar and logic/ dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or w ...

'' *

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

* *

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...

* Quintus Curtius *

Valerius Maximus Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' or ''Facta et dicta memorabilia''). He worke ...

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...

Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...

Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger ( ; AD 65), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, a dramatist, and in one work, a satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca ...

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

(in

Leonardo Bruni Leonardo Bruni or Leonardo Aretino ( – March 9, 1444) was an Italian humanist, historian and statesman, often recognized as the most important humanist historian of the early Renaissance. He has been called the first modern historian. He was t ...

's translation) *

Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical works, ''Annals'' ( ...

Florus Three main sets of works are attributed to Florus (a Roman cognomen): ''Virgilius orator an poeta'', the ''Epitome of Roman History'' and a collection of 14 short poems (66 lines in all). As to whether these were composed by the same person, or ...

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...

Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (30 May AD 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilius, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist from the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. ...

Justin Justin may refer to: People and fictional characters * Justin (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Justin (historian), Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire * Justin I (c. 450–527) ...

, '' Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' *

Orosius Paulus Orosius (; born 375/385 – 420 AD), less often Paul Orosius in English, was a Roman priest, historian and theologian, and a student of Augustine of Hippo. It is possible that he was born in '' Bracara Augusta'' (now Braga, Portugal), ...

Apuleius Apuleius ( ), also called Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (c. 124 – after 170), was a Numidians, Numidian Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician. He was born in the Roman Empire, Roman Numidia (Roman province), province ...

Martianus Capella Martianus Minneus Felix Capella () was a jurist, polymath and Latin literature, Latin prose writer of late antiquity, one of the earliest developers of the system of the seven liberal arts that structured early medieval education. He was a native ...

, ''Marriage of Philology and Mercury'' *

Gaius Marius Victorinus Gaius Marius Victorinus (also known as Victorinus Afer; ) was a Roman grammarian, rhetorician and Neoplatonic philosopher. Victorinus was African by birth and experienced the height of his career during the reign of Constantius II. He is also ...

, commentary on *

Macrobius Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, usually referred to as Macrobius (fl. AD 400), was a Roman provincial who lived during the early fifth century, during late antiquity, the period of time corresponding to the Later Roman Empire, and when Latin was ...

Vegetius Publius (or Flavius) Vegetius Renatus, known as Vegetius (), was a writer of the Later Roman Empire (late 4th century). Nothing is known of his life or station beyond what is contained in his two surviving works: ''Epitoma rei militaris'' (also r ...

Frontinus Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under Domitian, commanding forces in Roman Britain, and on the Rhine and Danube frontier ...

Alain of Lille Alain de Lille (Alan of Lille; Latin: ''Alanus ab Insulis''; 11281202/1203) was a French theologian and poet. He was born in Lille some time before 1128. His exact date of death remains unclear as well, with most research pointing toward it bein ...

, commentary on *

Giles of Rome Giles of Rome (; ; – 22 December 1316) was a medieval philosopher and Scholastic theologian and a friar of the Order of St Augustine, who was also appointed to the positions of prior general of his order and as Archbishop of Bourges. ...

, commentary on the ''Rhetoric'' *? Peter of Blois, ''On the Rhetorical Art of Speaking'' *

Dante Alighieri Dante Alighieri (; most likely baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri; – September 14, 1321), widely known mononymously as Dante, was an Italian Italian poetry, poet, writer, and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called ...

, ''

The Divine Comedy The ''Divine Comedy'' (, ) is an Italian narrative poem by Dante Alighieri, begun and completed around 1321, shortly before the author's death. It is widely considered the pre-eminent work in Italian literature and one of the greatest wor ...

'' *

Petrarch Francis Petrarch (; 20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374; ; modern ), born Francesco di Petracco, was a scholar from Arezzo and poet of the early Italian Renaissance, as well as one of the earliest Renaissance humanism, humanists. Petrarch's redis ...

Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio ( , ; ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian people, Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so ...

Coluccio Salutati Coluccio Salutati (16 February 1331 – 4 May 1406) was an Italian Renaissance humanist and notary, and one of the most important political and cultural leaders of Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history ...

Poggio Bracciolini Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (; 11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist. He is noted for rediscovering and recove ...

* Guarino Veronese * * Francesco Barbaro * Leonardo Giustiniani The ''Apology'' was addressed to Antonio Massa, master general of the Franciscan Order.

''Rhetorical Imitations''

''Rhetorical Imitations'' is a work of Latin

lexicography Lexicography is the study of lexicons and the art of compiling dictionaries. It is divided into two separate academic disciplines: * Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries. * Theoretical le ...

. It contains synonyms, idiomatic expressions and short essays presented alphabetically. First put together in 1433, it was augmented repeatedly until 1443. It survives in six manuscripts, but has never been printed. The ''Imitations'' was the cause of a rupture in the previously good relationship between Rho and Valla. In one place, Rho criticizes a passage of Valla's as erroneous and ridicules him as a mere "elementary school teacher". Valla took exception and accused Rho of plagiarism. After Rho's death, he circulated note, , attacking many of Rho's analyses. He published the note as part of his .; .

''Three Dialogues against Lactantius''

The ''Three Dialogues against Lactantius'' was written between early 1442 and the summer of 1445. A dedication copy was presented to

Pope Eugene IV Pope Eugene IV (; ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Republic of Venice, Venetian, and a nephew ...

. It is still preserved in the

Vatican Library The Vatican Apostolic Library (, ), more commonly known as the Vatican Library or informally as the Vat, is the library of the Holy See, located in Vatican City, and is the city-state's national library. It was formally established in 1475, alth ...

. A deluxe

illuminated manuscript An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared manuscript, document where the text is decorated with flourishes such as marginalia, borders and Miniature (illuminated manuscript), miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Churc ...

, its production was probably financed by Count

Vitaliano Borromeo Vitaliano Borromeo may refer to: * Vitaliano I Borromeo (died 1449), count of Arona * (1620–1690), marquis of Angera * Vitaliano Borromeo (cardinal) (1720–1793) * (1792-1874), marquis of Angera {{hndis ...

. The ''Dialogues'' is a work of fiction. The setting is

Pentecost Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 49th day (50th day when inclusive counting is used) after Easter Day, Easter. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spiri ...

in the garden of San Francesco Grande. The discussions take place over three days. The year is 1444. The main interlocutors in the dialogue are Pier Candido Decembrio and Nicolò Arcimboldi, but Rho himself, Francesco Barbaro, Vitaliano Borromeo, and Biagio Ghiglini also play smaller roles. They were all acquaintances of Rho in real life. In the ''Dialogues'', Rho criticises the doctrinal errors of

. His choice of the spelling ''Lactentius'' rather than the more common ''Lactantius'' was intended to signify that Lactantius was a "babe in Christ", since Latin was considered to mean "receiving milk", while meant "producing milk". The name ''Lactantius'' was a sobriquet paying compliment to its bearer's eloquence, since eloquent speech was often consider "milky".

References

Works cited

* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Rho, Antonio da 1395 births 1447 deaths Writers from Milan Italian Franciscans Italian Renaissance humanists