Anti-Christian Movement
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The Anti-Christian Movement () was an intellectual and political anti-religious movement in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
in the 1920s.''The Anti-Christian Movement''
/ref> The movement was born out of the anti-imperialistic and anti-Western sentiments that were heightened in the
May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese cultural and anti-imperialist political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen to protest the Chinese government's weak response ...
and strengthened by the strong desire for national unity in the 1920s. Under strong nationalistic feelings, Christianity was viewed by some as the vehicle and product of foreign
imperialism Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of Power (international relations), power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power (diplomatic power and cultura ...
, and that Western-operated churches and mission works were a way to shape the development of China for the benefit of Western imperialists. The movement aimed to challenge the presence of Christianity as a means to build a Chinese nation without foreign interferences. The Anti-Christian Movement was also a result of ideological development in China. The
May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese cultural and anti-imperialist political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen to protest the Chinese government's weak response ...
brought in modern Western ideologies as possible ideological framework for the
modernization Modernization theory or modernisation theory holds that as societies become more economically modernized, wealthier and more educated, their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic and rationalist. The "classical" theories ...
of China, and some of them were critical of religions, such as
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
,
rationalism In philosophy, rationalism is the Epistemology, epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to ot ...
, and
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
. These skeptical views against religion had entered into the intellectual debate for Chinese modernization, which led to the thinking that the Christian faith was a
superstition A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic (supernatural), magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly app ...
and it was imposed upon the Chinese people by Western imperialists. The various movements were also inspired by modernizing attitudes deriving from both
nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
and
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
ideologies, as well as feeding on older anti-Christian sentiment that was in large part due to repeated invasions of China by
Western countries The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also constitute the West. ...
.Hodous, Lewi
The Anti-Christian Movement in China
Cohen, Paul A
''The Anti-Christian Tradition in China''
The Chinese nationalists had also sought unity in their country as well as a transformation in the way that their society operated, which seemed to heavily rely upon Western thought and/or ideals. They brought forth age-old criticisms about the Western religion and accused the Christian missionaries of actively participating in it as a way of eliminating the native culture of China like other foreign imperialists.


Origins

The most influential publication behind the movement was an article by Zhu Zhixin, a colleague of
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-senUsually known as Sun Zhongshan () in Chinese; also known by Names of Sun Yat-sen, several other names. (; 12 November 186612 March 1925) was a Chinese physician, revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who founded the Republ ...
, entitled ''What Is Jesus?'', first published in 1919 and much republished thereafter. Zhu argued that Jesus was an ordinary illegitimate peasant child who became the leader of a band of mystical enthusiasts (with bandit elements) such as were often found in Chinese history. One precipitating factor was the publication in 1922 of '' The Christian Occupation of China'', a large-scale study of China's Protestant Christian churches and China's resources. Although the publication had been intended to prepare the way for turning Chinese churches over to Chinese Christians, the title seemed to show a different intent. A student movement was founded, garnering support at a number of universities, initially to oppose the planned meeting of the conference of the World Student Christian Federation in China, and more generally to counter-act the baleful influence of Christianity on China's attempts to modernize. Some other motives that were noted was to reclaim the lost infrastructure and temples that were given to the Christian missionaries and were transformed to become schools.


Course

Pamphlets, rallies and petitions were numerous from 1922 through 1927. The killing of six Christian missionaries during the Nanking Incident of 1927 has been attributed to the influence of the movement, but can also be attributed to more generalized
xenophobia Xenophobia (from (), 'strange, foreign, or alien', and (), 'fear') is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-gr ...
. In response to the attacks on Christian missionaries from various Chinese rebellions, the Churches sent out more missionaries to China in a "Faith Movement" to invigorate a call to faith for the Chinese. Despite the rejection and danger, many missionaries were also convinced that by the twentieth century, the "
Second Coming of Christ The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is the Christian and Islamic belief that Jesus Christ will return to Earth after his ascension to Heaven (which is said to have occurred about two thousand years ago). The ...
" would occur and thus, they seemed desperate to save as many people as they could before it was too late. Those that participated in persecuting the American Christians used fear tactics such as destroying the homes of the missionaries or kidnapping them and leaving them stranded somewhere in the wilderness, and caused multiple emotional breakdowns for many. American Christians began to become furloughed from all the chaos and panic as well as some of the Church's loss of funds. Chinese Christians were left in charge of the institutions that were left behind but many were persecuted still because of the contradicting ideals of the natives and Christianity. The Kuomintang's 1926 National Congress in Canton endorsed the growing anti-Christian movement in China, labelling missionaries as "tongues and claws of imperialism." Protests and riots linked to the Nationalists frequently occurred, sometimes with Nationalist troops participating. Several mission properties were destroyed or looted. However, since the Kuomintang leaders, many being Christians themselves, held back from starting an actual conflict with the Christian churches, although they encouraged the propaganda against the churches. Hence, Chiang Kai-shek attempted to reassure missionaries they would not be targeted, although attacks against missions continued. Kuomintang members often possessed contradictory and mixed views. Many Kuomintang leaders, both leftists like Liao Zhongkai and rightists like Dai Jitao, Zou Lu, Wu Zhihui, strongly advocated for the anti-Christian movement, while some leftists like Zhou Enlai and Soviet advisor Borodin were friendly towards the missionaries. The Beijing government and the KMT government, like the communists, supported the Recovery of Education Rights Movement which condemned all missionary schools as imperialistic. The KMT government banned foreign school administration, imposed a standard national curriculum and abolished compulsory religious activities and studies. The Educational Rights movement became a key component of KMT ideology. The movement effectively came to an end with Chiang Kai-shek's baptism in 1929 and the appointment of T. V. Soong, a Christian, as premier in 1930. The anti-Christian Movement indeed drove many foreign missionaries out of China but it ironically strengthened Chinese Christians' movement for the indigenization of churches in their country.Patrick Fuliang Shan, "The Anti-Christian Movement Revisited: A Centennial Reflection," American Review of China Studies, Vol. 23, no. 2, Fall 2022, 25-51.


See also

*
Boxer Rebellion The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty, by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious F ...
* Criticism of Christianity * Jesuit missions in China


References

{{Christianity and China 1920s in China Anti-Christian sentiment in China Chinese critics of Christianity History of Christianity in China