Antarctic flora

Antarctic flora are a distinct community of vascular plants which evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of Gondwana. In 2025, species of Antarctica flora reside on several now separated areas of the Southern Hemisphere, including southern South America, southernmost Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and New Caledonia. Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817 – 1911) was the first to notice similarities in the flora and speculated that Antarctica had served as either a source or a transitional point, and that land masses now separated might formerly have been adjacent.

Based on the similarities in their flora, botanist Ronald D'Oyley Good identified a separate Antarctic Floristic Kingdom that included southern South America, New Zealand, and some southern island groups. In addition, Australia was determined to be its own floristic kingdom because of the influx of tropical Eurasian flora that had mostly supplanted the Antarctic flora and included New Guinea and New Caledonia in the Paleotropical floristic kingdom.

Origin

Millions of years ago the climate in Antarctica was warmer, and was able to support flora well into the Neogene. This included forests of podocarps and southern beech. Antarctica was also part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 3035 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica, but is still an important component of the flora of southern Neotropic (South America) and Australasian realms, which were also former parts of Gondwana.

Some genera which originated in Antarctic Flora are still recognized as major components of the flora of New Caledonia, Tasmania, Madagascar, India, New Zealand, and southern South America.

South America, Madagascar, Africa, India, Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica were all part of the supercontinent Gondwana, which started to break up in the early Cretaceous period (14566 million years ago). India was the first to break away, followed by Africa, and then New Zealand, which started to drift north. By the end of the Cretaceous, South America and Australia were still joined to Antarctica. Paleontologist Gilbert Brenner identified the emergence of a distinct southern Gondwanan flora by the late Cretaceous period in the cooler and humid southern hemisphere regions of Australia, southern South America, southern Africa, Antarctica, and New Zealand; it most resembled the flora of modern-day southern New Zealand. A drier northern Gondwanan flora had developed in northern South America and northern Africa.

Africa and India drifted north into the tropical latitudes, became hotter and drier, and ultimately connected with the Eurasian continent. Today, the flora of Africa and India have few remnants of the Antarctic flora. Australia drifted north and became drier as well; the humid Antarctic flora retreated to the east coast and Tasmania, while the rest of Australia became dominated by ''Acacia, Eucalyptus'', and '' Casuarina'', as well as xeric shrubs and grasses. Humans arrived in Australia 5060,000 years ago and used fire to reshape the vegetation of the continent; as a result, the Antarctic flora, also known as the ''Rainforest flora'' in Australia, retreated to a few isolated areas composing less than 2% of Australia's land area.

The woody plants of the Antarctic flora include conifers in the families Podocarpaceae, Araucariaceae and the subfamily Callitroideae of Cupressaceae, and angiosperms such as the families Proteaceae, Griseliniaceae, Cunoniaceae, Atherospermataceae, and Winteraceae, and genera like southern beech (''Nothofagus'') and fuchsia ('' Fuchsia''). Many other families of flowering plants and ferns, including the tree fern '' Dicksonia'', are characteristic of the Antarctic flora.

Flora of Antarctica

Antarctic palaeoflora

A wide variety of plant life has resided in Antarctica throughout its history. Investigations of Upper Cretaceous and Early Tertiary sediments of Antarctica yield a rich assemblage of well-preserved fossil dicotyledonous angiosperm wood which provides evidence for the existence, since the Late Cretaceous, of temperate forests similar in composition to those found in present-day southern South America, New Zealand and Australia. It is suggested a paleobotanical habitat similar to the extant cool temperate Valdivian rainforests. During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a low diversity tundra ecosystem dominated by angiosperms replaced the rainforests.

There are two conifer and at least seven angiosperm morphotypes recorded in the Antarctica palaeoflora. Conifers include '' Cupressinoxylon'', which is the more common, and '' Podocarpoxylon''. The angiosperm component includes two species of '' Nothofagoxylon'', one species of '' Myrceugenelloxylon'' (similar to ''Luma'', in the extant family Myrtaceae), and one species of '' Weinmannioxylon'' (similar to '' Eucryphia'' in the extant family Cunoniaceae). Two other species are assigned to genera '' Hedycaryoxylon'' ( Monimiaceae) and '' Atherospermoxylon'' ( Atherospermataceae). A fossil water lily, '' Notonuphar'' (similar to '' Nuphar'' in the extant family Nympheaceae), was described from Eocene-aged sediments on Seymour Island in 2017.

Present-day flora

Antarctica's extant flora presently consists of around 100 mosses, 25-30 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species. In addition, there are around 250 lichens. Species of moss endemic to Antarctica include '' Grimmia antarctici'', '' Schistidium antarctici'', and '' Sarconeurum glaciale''. Just two native flowering plants, '' Deschampsia antarctica'' (Antarctic hair grass) and '' Colobanthus quitensis'' (Antarctic pearlwort), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula. The continent of Antarctica itself has been too cold and dry to support any other vascular plants for millions of years. The scanty vegetation of Antarctica is a result of the chilling temperature, lack of sunlight, little rainfall, relatively poor soil quality, and a lack of moisture due to the inability of the plants to absorb water in the form of ice. However, with the onset of anthropogenic warming, this "vegetation cover increased from 0.863 kilometers² in 1986 to 11.947 kilometers² in 2021, with an accelerated rate of change in recent years (2016–2021: 0.424 kilometers² per year) relative to the study period (1986–2021: 0.317 km² per year)."

There are also some aquatic moss species, including a few in deep water. One of them, '' Bryum pseudotriquetrum'', grows at water depths of up to 81 m in Radok Lake, and '' Pohlia wilsonii'' grows in freshwater lakes in Schirmacher Oasis.

Introduced plants

In the early 1900s experiments were conducted to see if arctic and alpine species could be grown in Antarctic conditions. The first such experiment was attempted at an Argentine meteorological station in 1905. The botanist Robert Rudmose-Brown sent arctic seeds to be planted at the station, but none of the seeds germinated. When sea kale (''Crambe maritima'') seeds were planted during the ''Terra Nova'' Expedition they sprouted, but did not last long. They were planted in a sheltered area near a stone hut on the south side of Granite Harbor on 10 December 1912. Twelve seeds in total germinated, but only grew one week before dying.

The common weedy hybrid annual meadow grass (''Poa annua'') was accidentally introduced to areas the South Sandwich Islands before 1953 and the Antarctic islands by 1981. It was found on Galindez Island, just off the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, and survived several winters. The well known smooth meadow-grass (''Poa pratensis'') was introduced to Cierva Point on the mainland when Antarctic beech (''Nothofagus antarctica'') and lenga beech (''Nothofagus pumilio'') were transplanted from Tierra del Fuego to the Argentine station now named Base Primavera. Though the trees died after a few years, the grass was still healthy in 1995, but not spreading. This small population was finally removed in 2015 and in the same year annual meadow grass was limited to just location near Admiralty Bay in the South Shetland Islands. The other smaller populations in the South Shetlands and the Antarctic Peninsula were removed during the 2009/2010 summer. Though the living populations were successfully removed it is possible that seeds are still present in the soil and may reestablish in the future. Despite eradication efforts the population of annual meadow grass continues to persist at Admiralty Bay in 2023.

See also

References

Works cited

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Further reading

* Cox, C. Barry, Peter D. Moore (1985). ''Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach (4th ed.)''. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.

External links

Plants
— Australian Antarctic Division

Plants
— British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council

The Plants of Antarctica
a blog by Caitlyn Bishop, Oceanwide Expeditions

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Phytogeography