organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the science, scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds and organic matter, organic materials, i.e., matter in its various forms that contain ...

, neighbouring group participation (NGP, also known as anchimeric assistance) has been defined by the

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is ...

(IUPAC) as the interaction of a reaction centre with a

lone pair In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom in a covalent bondIUPAC ''Gold Book'' definition''lone (electron) pair''/ref> and is sometimes called an unshared pair or non-bonding pair. Lone ...

electron The electron (, or in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary charge, elementary electric charge. It is a fundamental particle that comprises the ordinary matter that makes up the universe, along with up qua ...

s in an atom or the electrons present in a

sigma Sigma ( ; uppercase Σ, lowercase σ, lowercase in word-final position ς; ) is the eighteenth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 200. In general mathematics, uppercase Σ is used as an operator ...

pi bond In chemistry, pi bonds (π bonds) are covalent chemical bonds, in each of which two lobes of an orbital on one atom overlap with two lobes of an orbital on another atom, and in which this overlap occurs laterally. Each of these atomic orbital ...

contained within the parent molecule but not conjugated with the reaction centre. When NGP is in operation it is normal for the

reaction rate The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per u ...

to be increased. It is also possible for the

stereochemistry Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, studies the spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on the relationships between stereoisomers, which are defined ...

of the reaction to be abnormal (or unexpected) when compared with a ''normal'' reaction. While it is possible for neighbouring groups to influence many reactions in organic chemistry (''e.g.'' the reaction of a

diene In organic chemistry, a diene ( ); also diolefin, ) or alkadiene) is a covalent compound that contains two double bonds, usually among carbon atoms. They thus contain two alk''ene'' units, with the standard prefix ''di'' of systematic nome ...

such as 1,3-cyclohexadiene with

maleic anhydride Maleic anhydride is an organic compound with the formula . It is the acid anhydride of maleic acid. It is a colorless or white solid with an acrid odor. It is produced industrially on a large scale for applications in coatings and polymers. Str ...

normally gives the endo isomer because of a secondary effect ) this page is limited to neighbouring group effects seen with

carbocation Carbocation is a general term for ions with a positively charged carbon atom. In the present-day definition given by the IUPAC, a carbocation is any even-electron cation with significant partial positive charge on a carbon atom. They are further ...

s and S_N2 reactions.

NGP by heteroatom lone pairs

In this type of

substitution reaction A substitution reaction (also known as single displacement reaction or single substitution reaction) is a chemical reaction during which one functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another functional group. Substitution reactions ar ...

, one group of the

substrate Substrate may refer to: Physical layers *Substrate (biology), the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the surface or medium on which an organism grows or is attached ** Substrate (aquatic environment), the earthy material that exi ...

participates initially in the reaction and thereby affects the reaction. A classic example of NGP is the reaction of a

sulfur Sulfur ( American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur ( Commonwealth spelling) is a chemical element; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms ...

nitrogen mustard Nitrogen mustards (NMs) are cytotoxic organic compounds with the bis(2-chloroethyl)amino ((ClC2H4)2NR) functional group. Although originally produced as chemical warfare agents, they were the first chemotherapeutic agents for treatment of canc ...

with a

nucleophile In chemistry, a nucleophile is a chemical species that forms bonds by donating an electron pair. All molecules and ions with a free pair of electrons or at least one pi bond can act as nucleophiles. Because nucleophiles donate electrons, they are ...

, the rate of reaction is much higher for the sulfur mustard and a nucleophile than it would be for a primary or secondary

alkyl In organic chemistry, an alkyl group is an alkane missing one hydrogen. The term ''alkyl'' is intentionally unspecific to include many possible substitutions. An acyclic alkyl has the general formula of . A cycloalkyl group is derived from a cy ...

chloride The term chloride refers to a compound or molecule that contains either a chlorine anion (), which is a negatively charged chlorine atom, or a non-charged chlorine atom covalently bonded to the rest of the molecule by a single bond (). The pr ...

without a

heteroatom In chemistry, a heteroatom () is, strictly, any atom that is not carbon or hydrogen. Organic chemistry In practice, the term is mainly used more specifically to indicate that non-carbon atoms have replaced carbon in the backbone of the molecular ...

. center, 400px reacts with water 600 times faster than .

NGP by an alkene

The π orbitals of an

alkene In organic chemistry, an alkene, or olefin, is a hydrocarbon containing a carbon–carbon double bond. The double bond may be internal or at the terminal position. Terminal alkenes are also known as Alpha-olefin, α-olefins. The Internationa ...

can stabilize a

transition state In chemistry, the transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. It is defined as the state corresponding to the highest potential energy along this reaction coordinate. It is often marked w ...

by helping to delocalize the positive charge of the

. For instance the unsaturated

tosylate In organic chemistry, a toluenesulfonyl group (tosyl group, abbreviated Ts or TosIn this article, "Ts", unless otherwise stated, means tosyl, not tennessine.) is a univalent functional group with the chemical formula . It consists of a tolyl ...

will react more quickly (10¹¹ times faster for aqueous solvolysis) with a nucleophile than the saturated tosylate. center, 250px The carbocationic intermediate will be stabilized by

resonance Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when an object or system is subjected to an external force or vibration whose frequency matches a resonant frequency (or resonance frequency) of the system, defined as a frequency that generates a maximu ...

where the positive charge is spread over several atoms. In the diagram below this is shown. center, 600px Here is a different view of the same intermediates. center, 400px Even if the alkene is more remote from the reacting center the alkene can still act in this way. For instance in the following

benzenesulfonate the alkene is able to delocalise the carbocation. center, 650px

NGP by a cyclopropane, cyclobutane or a homoallyl group

The reaction of cyclopropylmethamine with

sodium nitrite Sodium nitrite is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a white to slightly yellowish crystalline powder that is very soluble in water and is hygroscopic. From an industrial perspective, it is the most important nitrite sa ...

in dilute aqueous

perchloric acid Perchloric acid is a mineral acid with the formula H Cl O4. It is an oxoacid of chlorine. Usually found as an aqueous solution, this colorless compound is a stronger acid than sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. It is a powerful oxid ...

solution yielded a mixture of 48% cyclopropylmethyl alcohol, 47% cyclobutanol, and 5%

homoallylic In organic chemistry, an allyl group is a substituent with the structural formula . It consists of a methylene bridge () attached to a vinyl group (). The name is derived from the scientific name for garlic, . In 1844, Theodor Wertheim isolated a ...

alcohol (but-3-en-1-ol). In the non-classical perspective, the positive charge is delocalized throughout the carbocation intermediate structure via resonance, resulting in partial (electron-deficient) bonds. Evidently, the relatively low yield of the homoallylic alcohol implies that the homoallylic structure is the weakest resonance contributor. Cyclopropylmethamine diazotization and nucleophilic substitution

Cyclopropylmethamine diazotization and nucleophilic substitution

NGP by an aromatic ring

aromatic In organic chemistry, aromaticity is a chemical property describing the way in which a conjugated system, conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibits a stabilization stronger than would be expected from conjugati ...

ring can assist in the formation of a

ic intermediate called a phenonium ion by delocalising the positive charge. center, 650px When the following

tosyl In organic chemistry, a toluenesulfonyl group (tosyl group, abbreviated Ts or TosIn this article, "Ts", unless otherwise stated, means tosyl, not tennessine.) is a univalent functional group with the chemical formula . It consists of a tolyl ...

ate reacts with

acetic acid Acetic acid , systematically named ethanoic acid , is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula (also written as , , or ). Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main compone ...

solvolysis In chemistry, solvolysis is a type of nucleophilic substitution (S1/S2) or elimination reaction, elimination where the nucleophile is a solvent molecule. Characteristic of S1 reactions, solvolysis of a chirality (chemistry), chiral reactant affor ...

then rather than a simple S_N2 reaction forming B, a 48:48:4 mixture of A, B (which are enantiomers) and C+D was obtained. center, 600px The mechanism which forms A and B is shown below. center, 600px

NGP by aliphatic C-C or C-H bonds

Aliphatic C-C or C-H bonds can lead to charge delocalization if these bonds are close and antiperiplanar to the leaving group. Corresponding intermediates are referred to a

nonclassical ion In chemistry, a nonclassical ion usually refers to carbonium ions, a family of organic cations. They are characterized by delocalized three-center, two-electron bonds. The more stable members are often bi- or polycyclic. Examples Historical ...

s, with the 2-norbornyl system as the most well known case.

External links

IUPAC definition

References

{{Reflist Physical organic chemistry Chemical kinetics