Alexandros Papagos (; 9 December 1883 – 4 October 1955) was a
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
military officer who led the
Hellenic Army
The Hellenic Army (, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the army, land force of Greece. The term Names of the Greeks, '' Hellenic'' is the endogenous synonym for ''Greek''. The Hellenic Army is the largest of the three branches ...
in
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
and the later stages of the subsequent
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War () took place from 1946 to 1949. The conflict, which erupted shortly after the end of World War II, consisted of a Communism, Communist-led uprising against the established government of the Kingdom of Greece. The rebels decl ...
.
The only Greek army career officer to rise to the rank of
Field Marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
, Papagos became the first Chief of the
Hellenic National Defence General Staff from 1950 until his resignation the following year. He then entered politics, founding the nationalist
Greek Rally party and becoming the country's
Prime Minister
A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
after his victory in the
1952 elections.
His premiership was shaped by the
Cold War
The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
and the aftermath of the Greek Civil War, and was defined by several key events, including Greece becoming a member of
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...
; U.S. military bases being allowed on Greek territory and the formation of a powerful and vehemently
anti-communist
Anti-communism is political and ideological opposition to communist beliefs, groups, and individuals. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when th ...
security apparatus. Papagos' tenure also saw the start of the
Greek economic miracle, and rising tensions with Britain and Turkey during the
Cyprus Emergency
The Cyprus Emergency was a conflict fought in British Cyprus between April 1955 and March 1959.
The National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), a Greek Cypriot right-wing nationalist guerrilla organisation, began an armed campaign in s ...
over the
Cyprus issue.
Military career
Alexandros Papagos was born in Athens on 9 December 1883.
His father was
Major General Leonidas Papagos from the island of
Syros
Syros ( ), also known as Siros or Syra, is a Greece, Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is south-east of Athens. The area of the island is and at the 2021 census it had 21,124 inhabitants.
The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano S ...
, who occupied senior posts during his military career, including Director of Personnel at the War Ministry and
aide-de-camp to the King. His mother was Maria Averoff, daughter of the politician Dimitrios Averoff and niece of the magnate
George Averoff. As a result, Alexandros Papagos was born into the Greek social elite, with close ties to the royal palace. He initially entered the Law School of the
University of Athens
The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA; , ''Ethnikó kai Kapodistriakó Panepistímio Athinón''), usually referred to simply as the University of Athens (UoA), is a public university in Athens, Greece, with various campuses alo ...
, but soon switched to a military career. In 1902 he entered the
Brussels Military Academy and followed it up with studies at the Cavalry Application School at
Ypres
Ypres ( ; ; ; ; ) is a Belgian city and municipality in the province of West Flanders. Though
the Dutch name is the official one, the city's French name is most commonly used in English. The municipality comprises the city of Ypres/Ieper ...
. He was commissioned as a cavalry second lieutenant in the
Hellenic Army
The Hellenic Army (, sometimes abbreviated as ΕΣ), formed in 1828, is the army, land force of Greece. The term Names of the Greeks, '' Hellenic'' is the endogenous synonym for ''Greek''. The Hellenic Army is the largest of the three branches ...
on 15 July 1906.
In 1911 he married Maria Kallinski, the daughter of Lt. General
Andreas Kallinskis-Roïdis.
Promoted to lieutenant in 1911, Papagos participated in the
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans, Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg), Greece, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Montenegro, M ...
of 1912–13 attached to the field headquarters of the Crown Prince, and from 1913, King
Constantine.
In 1913 he was promoted to captain.
After the Balkan Wars, he served in the 1st Cavalry Regiment and the staff of
III Army Corps. Promoted to major in 1916, he was appointed as chief of staff of the Cavalry Brigade. A confirmed
monarchist
Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. C ...
, he was dismissed from the army in 1917 as a result of the
National Schism.
Under the 1917–1920 government of
Eleftherios Venizelos
Eleftherios Kyriakou Venizelos (, ; – 18 March 1936) was a Cretan State, Cretan Greeks, Greek statesman and prominent leader of the Greek national liberation movement. As the leader of the Liberal Party (Greece), Liberal Party, Venizelos ser ...
, Papagos was sent to internal exile in
Ios
Ios, Io or Nio (, ; ; locally Nios, Νιός) is a Greek island in the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. Ios is a hilly island with cliffs down to the sea on most sides. It is situated halfway between Naxos and Santorini. It is about long an ...
,
Thira
Santorini (, ), officially Thira (, ) or Thera, is a Greece, Greek island in the southern Aegean Sea, about southeast from the mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago formed by the Santorini caldera. It is the sou ...
,
Milos
Milos or Melos (; , ; ) is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. It is the southwestern-most island of the Cyclades group.
The ''Venus de Milo'' (now in the Louvre), the ''Poseidon of Melos'' (now in the ...
, and
Crete
Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...
.
He was recalled to active service in 1920 following the
electoral victory of the monarchist parties, with the retroactive rank of lieutenant colonel, serving once more as chief of staff of the Cavalry Brigade and of the Cavalry Division during the
Asia Minor Campaign against the
Turkish National Movement
The Turkish National Movement (), also known as the Anatolian Movement (), the Nationalist Movement (), and the Kemalists (, ''Kemalciler'' or ''Kemalistler''), included political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries that resu ...
of
Mustafa Kemal.
After the
disastrous defeat of the Greek army in August 1922 and the subsequent outbreak of a
military revolt, he was once more dismissed from the army, but was recalled in 1926, with the rank of colonel.
In 1927 he was appointed as commander of the 1st Cavalry Division. Promoted to major general in 1930,
in 1931, he was named Deputy Chief of the
Hellenic Army General Staff.
In 1933–35 he served as Inspector of Cavalry, followed by commands of the I and III Army Corps. He was promoted to Lt. General in 1935.
Restoration of the Monarchy and the Metaxas Regime
On 10 October 1935, along with the service chiefs of the Navy (Rear Admiral
Dimitrios Oikonomou) and the Air Force (Air Vice Marshal
Georgios Reppas), he toppled the government of
Panagis Tsaldaris and became Minister for Military Affairs in the new cabinet of
Georgios Kondylis, which immediately declared the restoration of the
Greek monarchy.
Papagos remained Minister of Military Affairs until Kondylis' resignation on 30 November, and was re-appointed to the post in the succeeding
Konstantinos Demertzis
Konstantinos Demertzis (; January 12, 1876, in Athens – April 13, 1936, in Athens) was a Greek academic and politician. He was the 49th Prime Minister of Greece from November 1935 to April 1936. Demertzis died during his mandate, of a heart att ...
cabinet on 13 December 1935 until 5 March 1936. On 5 March 1936 he was named Inspector-General of the Army, holding the post until 31 July. On the next day, 1 August, he was promoted to Chief of the Army General Staff.
From his position, he employed the Army to support
Ioannis Metaxas
Ioannis Metaxas (; 12 April 187129 January 1941) was a Greek military officer and politician who was dictator of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. He governed constitutionally for the first four months of his tenure, and thereafter as th ...
' declaration of dictatorship on 4 August 1936.
As head of the army and the palace's man, Papagos was a crucial figure in
Metaxas' dictatorial regime. In 1940, a special law was passed to allow him to continue in his position, despite being over the statutory retirement age for general officers. As Chief of the General Staff, he actively tried to reorganize and reequip the Army for the oncoming
Second World War
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
.
World War II
At the outbreak of the
Greco-Italian War on 28 October 1940, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Army, a post he retained until the capitulation of the Greek armed forces following the
German invasion of Greece
The German invasion of Greece or Operation Marita (), were the attacks on Kingdom of Greece, Greece by Kingdom of Italy, Italy and Nazi Germany, Germany during World War II. The Italian invasion in October 1940, which is usually known as the Gr ...
in April 1941.
Papagos directed Greek operations against
Italy
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
along the Greek-Albanian border. The Greek army, under his command, managed to halt the Italian advance by 8 November and forced them to withdraw deep into Albania between 18 November and 23 December. The successes of the Greek Army brought him fame and applause. A second Italian offensive between 9 and 16 March 1941 was repulsed. Despite this success, Papagos chose to maintain the bulk of the Greek Army in
Albania
Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
, and was unwilling to order a gradual withdrawal to reinforce the north-eastern border (and a defense along the so-called Haliacmon line, considered to be more defensible) as German intervention came closer. After the German invasion on 6 April 1941, outnumbered Greek forces in Macedonia fiercely resisted the German offensive at the
Metaxas Line, but were outflanked by the enemy and so Papagos endorsed their surrender. Soon after, the Army of Epirus capitulated and by 23 April, the Greek government was forced to flee to Crete.
Occupation Years

Papagos also resigned from the army on 23 April but did not follow the King and his government into exile, remaining in
occupied Greece. He spent most of the occupation in de facto house arrest. In 1943 he established, with other former army officers, a
resistance organization, called
Military Hierarchy (Στρατιωτική Ιεραρχία). In July of the same year, he was arrested by the German occupation authorities and transported to concentration camps in Germany.
In late April 1945 he was
transferred to Tyrol together with about 140 other prominent inmates of the
Dachau concentration camp
Dachau (, ; , ; ) was one of the first concentration camps built by Nazi Germany and the longest-running one, opening on 22 March 1933. The camp was initially intended to intern Hitler's political opponents, which consisted of communists, s ...
, where the
SS left the prisoners behind. He was liberated by the
Fifth U.S. Army on 5 May 1945.
Greek Civil War
Papagos returned to Greece in May 1945. In August 1945, he was appointed an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the
Order of the British Empire
The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities. It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two o ...
by the British.
He remained retired and held no active military position, but served as grand chamberlain to King
Paul
Paul may refer to:
People
* Paul (given name), a given name, including a list of people
* Paul (surname), a list of people
* Paul the Apostle, an apostle who wrote many of the books of the New Testament
* Ray Hildebrand, half of the singing duo ...
and in July 1947 was promoted to the exceptionally rare rank of full general as a token of honour.
In January 1949, he was once again appointed Commander-in-Chief in the ongoing
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War () took place from 1946 to 1949. The conflict, which erupted shortly after the end of World War II, consisted of a Communism, Communist-led uprising against the established government of the Kingdom of Greece. The rebels decl ...
.
Papagos led the final victory of the government forces over the Communist
Democratic Army of Greece
The Democratic Army of Greece (DAG; , ΔΣΕ; ''Dimokratikós Stratós Elládas'', DSE) was the army founded by the Communist Party of Greece during the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). At its height, it had a strength of around 50,000 men and w ...
, employing extensive American material aid (including napalm equipped aircraft ), and the extensive deployment of
Hellenic Mountain Raider Companies of Special Forces (LOK), during the
Grammos-Vitsi campaign between February and October of that year.
The British officer
Christopher Woodhouse, who had been active in the
Greek Resistance and knew the country well, considered that his predecessor, Lt. General
Dimitrios Giatzis, had "virtually won the war" before his dismissal, but that Papagos' appointment was beneficial because Papagos, through his seniority and prestige, "could impose his own plans and wishes on both the Greek high command and the allied military missions, which had been for some months at loggerheads with each other." He further qualifies Papagos as a "superlative staff officer, impeccable in logistic planning and exact calculation, a master of the politics and diplomacy of war", but "with little experience of high command in battle", and a tendency to command from Athens, seldom even visiting the front lines. Papagos' aloof leadership style led to clashes with one of the most important subordinate commanders, the impetuous Lt. General
Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos.
As a reward for his services, he was awarded the title of
Field Marshal
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons a ...
on 28 October 1949, the only Greek career officer to ever hold this rank.
He continued to serve in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief until 1951,
while Greece was in a state of political instability, with splinter parties and weak politicians unable to provide a firm government.
Political career

In May 1951, Papagos resigned from the Army to enter politics. He founded the
Greek Rally (Greek: Ελληνικός Συναγερμός), modelled after
De Gaulle's ''
Rassemblement du Peuple Français'',
and won the September elections with 36.53 percent of the vote. For a time, the Palace feared that he might establish a dictatorship, largely due to his popularity, his image as a strong and determined leader, and the communist defeat in the civil war, which was attributed in great part to his leadership.
Despite his victory, Papagos was unable to form a government on this majority, and had to wait until the
November 1952 elections, where his party tallied an impressive 49 percent of the popular vote, gaining 239 out of 300 seats in Parliament. The Field Marshal, with his popular backing and support from the Americans was an authoritative figure, leading to friction with the Royal Palace. Papagos' government successfully strived to modernize Greece (where the young and energetic Minister of Public Works,
Constantine Karamanlis, first distinguished himself) and restore the economy of a country ruined by 10 years of war, but was criticized by the opposition for doing little to restore social harmony in a country still scarred from the civil war.
One of the major issues faced by Papagos was the
Cyprus problem
The Cyprus problem, also known as the Cyprus conflict, Cyprus issue, Cyprus dispute, or Cyprus question, is an ongoing dispute between the Greek Cypriot and the Turkish Cypriot community in the north of the island of Cyprus, where troops of th ...
, where the Greek majority had begun clamouring for ''
Enosis
''Enosis'' (, , "union") is an irredentist ideology held by various Greek communities living outside Greece that calls for them and the regions that they inhabit to be incorporated into the Greek state. The idea is related to the Megali Idea ...
'' (Union) with Greece. Though reluctant to confront
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
, demonstrations in the streets of Athens prompted him to order Greece's UN representative to raise the issue of Cyprus before the
UN General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; , AGNU or AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as its main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ. Currently in its 79th session, its powers, ...
in August 1954. When the
EOKA
The Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (EOKA ; ) was a Greek Cypriot nationalist guerrilla organization that fought a campaign for the end of Cyprus#Cyprus under the British Empire, British rule in Cyprus, and for enosis, eventual union with K ...
campaign to expel the British and initiate ''Enosis'' in Cyprus began in 1955, Papagos was in declining health and unwilling to act. The clashes in Cyprus, however, led to a deterioration of
Greco-Turkish relations, culminating in the
Istanbul Pogrom
The Istanbul pogrom, also known as the Istanbul riots, were a series of state-sponsored anti-Greek mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul's Greek minority on 6–7 September 1955. The pogrom was orchestrated by the governing Democrat ...
in September.
In January 1955, Papagos began to develop gastric issues, a result of his imprisonment during World War II; he appointed
Stefanos Stefanopoulos to serve as provisional premier during his illness. However, Papagos condition worsened, and he died of a
lung hemorrhage on 4 October 1955.
The
Athens
Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
suburb of
Papagou
Papagou ( or Παπάγος ''Papagos'') is a suburban town and municipal unit in the eastern part of the Athens#Athens Urban Area, Athens agglomeration, Greece. The town is named after Marshal Alexandros Papagos, a general who led the Greek Army ...
, where the
Ministry of Defence
A ministry of defence or defense (see American and British English spelling differences#-ce.2C -se, spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and Mi ...
is located, is named after him.
References
Sources
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*
External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Papagos, Alexander
1883 births
1955 deaths
Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens
20th-century prime ministers of Greece
Military personnel from Athens
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Greece
4th of August Regime
Greek Rally politicians
Ministers of military affairs of Greece
Ministers of national defence of Greece
Greek MPs 1951–1952
Greek MPs 1952–1956
Field marshals of Greece
Hellenic Army generals of World War II
Chiefs of the Hellenic Army General Staff
Chiefs of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff
Greek military personnel of World War I
Greek military personnel of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)
People of the Greco-Italian War
Greek Resistance members
Greek military personnel of the Greek Civil War
Greek prisoners of war
Dachau concentration camp survivors
Greek anti-communists
Conservatism in Greece
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Commander's Crosses of the Cross of Valour (Greece)
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
1950s in Greek politics
Greek people of Aromanian descent
Royal Military Academy (Belgium) alumni