Alexander Haig (19 January 1853 – 6 April 1924) was a Scottish
physician
A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
,
dietitian
A dietitian, medical dietitian, or dietician is an expert in identifying and treating disease-related malnutrition and in conducting medical nutrition therapy, for example designing an enteral tube feeding regimen or mitigating the effects of ...
and
vegetarianism
Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the Eating, consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects as food, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slau ...
activist. He was best known for pioneering the uric-acid free diet.
Biography
Haig was born at
Rumbling Bridge
Rumbling Bridge is a small village built on both sides of a gorge of the River Devon, Clackmannanshire, River Devon, which formed the boundary between the historic counties of Perthshire and Kinross-shire and is now within the combined Perth and K ...
, Perthshire, in Scotland. He was the son of George Andrew Haig of
Bonnington
Bonnington is a dispersed village and civil parish on the northern edge of the Romney Marsh in Ashford District of Kent, England. The village is located to the south of the town of Ashford on the B2067 ( Hamstreet to Hythe road).
Bonningt ...
and Maulesden,
Brechin
Brechin (; ) is a town and former royal burgh in Angus, Scotland. Traditionally Brechin was described as a city because of its cathedral and its status as the seat of a pre-Scottish Reformation, Reformation Roman Catholic diocese (which contin ...
.
[''Dr Alexander Haig, M.A, M.D.'' ''Montrose Standard'' (April 18, 1924). p. 2] He was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford
Exeter College (in full: The Rector and Scholars of Exeter College in the University of Oxford) is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England, and the fourth-oldest college of the university.
The college was founde ...
. He took the M.R.C.S in 1879, graduated M.A. in 1880 and obtained his M.D. in 1888. He was elected F.R.C.P. in 1890.
He was a physician in London from 1882. He was consulting physician to the
Royal Waterloo Hospital for Children and Women
The Royal Waterloo Hospital for Children and Women was a hospital located on the corner of Waterloo Bridge Road and Stamford Street near Waterloo station in London, England. The current building was designed by noted ecclesiastical architect S ...
and to the
Metropolitan Hospital
The Metropolitan Hospital Center (MHC, also referred to as Metropolitan Hospital) is a hospital in the East Harlem neighborhood of New York City.
It has been affiliated with New York Medical College since it was founded in 1875, representing ...
.
Haig married his cousin Gertrude Mary Haig on 19 February 1878. He had one son and two daughters.
His son was physician
Kenneth G. Haig.
Haig died in London on 6 April 1924, aged 71.
Haig's wife Gertrude said that in his later years, he suffered from blindness in one eye and his son Kenneth stated that he had suffered from
neurasthenia
Neurasthenia ( and () 'weak') is a term that was first used as early as 1829 for a mechanical weakness of the nerves. It became a major diagnosis in North America during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries after neurologist Georg ...
. A post-mortem examination revealed the cause of death to be
atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a pattern of the disease arteriosclerosis, characterized by development of abnormalities called lesions in walls of arteries. This is a chronic inflammatory disease involving many different cell types and is driven by eleva ...
with
cirrhosis
Cirrhosis, also known as liver cirrhosis or hepatic cirrhosis, chronic liver failure or chronic hepatic failure and end-stage liver disease, is a chronic condition of the liver in which the normal functioning tissue, or parenchyma, is replaced ...
of the liver. He was buried in
Edinburgh
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...
.
[''The Late Dr Alexander Haig''. '']The Scotsman
''The Scotsman'' is a Scottish compact (newspaper), compact newspaper and daily news website headquartered in Edinburgh. First established as a radical political paper in 1817, it began daily publication in 1855 and remained a broadsheet until ...
'' (April 14, 1924). p. 6
Uric acid
In the 1880s Haig discovered that by eliminating meat from his diet it brought him relief from a
migraine
Migraine (, ) is a complex neurological disorder characterized by episodes of moderate-to-severe headache, most often unilateral and generally associated with nausea, and light and sound sensitivity. Other characterizing symptoms may includ ...
that he had suffered from for years.
Haig suggested that excess of
uric acid
Uric acid is a heterocyclic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen with the Chemical formula, formula C5H4N4O3. It forms ions and salts known as urates and acid urates, such as ammonium acid urate. Uric acid is a product of the meta ...
in the blood may cause depression, epilepsy, and migraines. He came to the conclusion that his headaches and virtually every other disease known to man was caused by excess uric acid including cardiovascular disease, cancer,
dementia
Dementia is a syndrome associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by a general decline in cognitive abilities that affects a person's ability to perform activities of daily living, everyday activities. This typically invo ...
, gout,
hypertension
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a Chronic condition, long-term Disease, medical condition in which the blood pressure in the artery, arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms i ...
, and stroke.
Haig is credited as one of the first physicians to link excess uric acid to hypertension.

Haig was the expositor of the uric-acid free (also known as the purine free) diet, a
lacto-vegetarian
A lacto-vegetarian (sometimes referred to as a lactarian; from the Latin root lact-, ''milk'') diet abstains from the consumption of meat as well as Egg as food, eggs, while still consuming dairy products such as milk, cheese (without animal renn ...
diet.
His best known work was his book ''Uric Acid as a Factor in the Causation of Disease'' which was translated in multiple languages. It brought Haig into communication with people from many countries around the world. Patients consulted him from as far as China and India.
The idea of a "purine free" diet is impossible as all foods contain purines. Haig's diet was thus to restrict foods high in purines. In 1911, Haig claimed that he lived on a uric-acid free diet and that his turnover of uric acid was under 10gr which is far under a meat-eaters diet which is over 20gr.
Purines are present in meat foods and high consumption of these foods has been implicated in causing gout, bladder and kidney stones.
Haig experimented and proceeded to demonstrate that uric acid deposits were also responsible for
eczema
Dermatitis is a term used for different types of skin inflammation, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened ...
,
jaundice
Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a yellowish or, less frequently, greenish pigmentation of the skin and sclera due to high bilirubin levels. Jaundice in adults is typically a sign indicating the presence of underlying diseases involving ...
,
gastritis
Gastritis is the inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It may occur as a short episode or may be of a long duration. There may be no symptoms but, when symptoms are present, the most common is upper abdominal pain (see dyspepsia). Othe ...
and
flatulence
Flatulence is the expulsion of gas from the Gastrointestinal tract, intestines via the anus, commonly referred to as farting. "Flatus" is the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. A proportion of intestinal gas may be swal ...
. He used the terms “uricacidemia” and “collaemia” which he believed were responsible for causing many conditions from
anemia
Anemia (also spelt anaemia in British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen. This can be due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin availabl ...
to
atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a pattern of the disease arteriosclerosis, characterized by development of abnormalities called lesions in walls of arteries. This is a chronic inflammatory disease involving many different cell types and is driven by eleva ...
.
Uricacidemia was defined as excess uric acid in the blood.
Collaemia was defined as "excess of uric acid in the blood, the uric acid being in some colloid form which obstructs more or less the capillary circulation all over the body."
His book ''Uric Acid'' went through seven editions in the 1890s and 1900s. Haig's uric-acid free diet (known as Haig's diet) required the elimination
of every food containing high amounts of purines that could be metabolized into uric acid.
[Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè. (2000). ''The Cambridge World History of Food, Volume 2''. Cambridge University Press. p. 1560. ] On this diet all meats, legumes and some vegetables were eliminated including
asparagus
Asparagus (''Asparagus officinalis'') is a perennial flowering plant species in the genus ''Asparagus (genus), Asparagus'' native to Eurasia. Widely cultivated as a vegetable crop, its young shoots are used as a spring vegetable.
Description ...
,
bean
A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s,
lentil
The lentil (''Vicia lens'' or ''Lens culinaris'') is an annual plant, annual legume grown for its Lens (geometry), lens-shaped edible seeds or ''pulses'', also called ''lentils''. It is about tall, and the seeds grow in Legume, pods, usually w ...
s,
mushroom
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing Sporocarp (fungi), fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom.
The standard for the n ...
s,
pea
Pea (''pisum'' in Latin) is a pulse or fodder crop, but the word often refers to the seed or sometimes the pod of this flowering plant species. Peas are eaten as a vegetable. Carl Linnaeus gave the species the scientific name ''Pisum sativum' ...
s and
whole grain
A whole grain is a grain of any cereal and pseudocereal that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm.
As part of a general healthy diet, consumption of whole grains is associated ...
products.
Haig's diet became more restricted over time.
[Barnett, L. Margaret. (1995). ''Every Man His Own Physician: Dietetic Fads, 1890-1914''. In Harmke Kamminga, Andrew Cunningham. ''The Science and Culture of Nutrition, 1840-1940''. p. 165. Rodopi. ] His original diet included eggs and fish. These were later omitted.
Haig advised people to live on "bread stuffs, milk, cheese, and vegetables."
Haig criticized ordinary vegetarian diets as asparagus, beans, lentils and mushrooms contain purines and thus produce uric acid.
He recommended his uric-acid free vegetarian diet to athletes. The uric-acid free diet was restricted to
cheese
Cheese is a type of dairy product produced in a range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk (usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats or sheep). During prod ...
,
milk
Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of lactating mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals (including breastfeeding, breastfed human infants) before they are able to digestion, digest solid food. ...
, some vegetables, fruits, nuts and
white bread
White bread typically refers to breads made from wheat flour from which the bran and the germ layers have been removed from the whole wheatberry as part of the flour grinding or milling process, producing a light-colored flour.
Nutrition
Wh ...
.
Haig claimed that vegetarians were in error for eating "poisonous things such as peas, beans and lentils. They are twice as poisonous as meat".
[''About Vegetable Cranks''. ''West Lothian Courier'' (August 26, 1904). p. 7] Haig described
rhubarb
Rhubarb is the fleshy, edible stalks ( petioles) of species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of ''Rheum'' in the family Polygonaceae, which are cooked and used for food. The plant is a herbaceous perennial that grows from short, thick rhizomes. ...
as a "poisonous and highly acid vegetable".
Haig stated that his own diet consisted "chiefly of bread". He condemned tea drinking, commenting that tea drinkers "are simply swallowing uric acid".
Haig opposed the consumption of cacao, coffee and tea as they contain
xanthine
Xanthine ( or , from Ancient Greek for its yellowish-white appearance; archaically xanthic acid; systematic name 3,7-dihydropurine-2,6-dione) is a purine base found in most human body tissues and fluids, as well as in other organisms. Several ...
, a purine.
Apsley House
Haig was attending physician at Apsley House sanatorium in
Slough
Slough () is a town in Berkshire, England, in the Thames Valley, west of central London and north-east of Reading, at the intersection of the M4, M40 and M25 motorways. It is part of the historic county of Buckinghamshire. In 2021, the ...
specifically designed to treat disease through the uric-acid-free diet. The house was equipped with a garden, greenhouse and views of scenic countryside. Two of Haig's patients wrote a uric-acid-free
cookbook
A cookbook or cookery book is a kitchen reference containing recipes.
Cookbooks may be general, or may specialize in a particular cuisine or category of food.
Recipes in cookbooks are organized in various ways: by course (food), course (appetize ...
with recipes from Apsley House. The house was demolished in 1970.
Cancer
Haig argued that cancer, gout and rheumatism are allied diseases that are the result of an excess of uric acid and can be treated by dietetic therapy. Haig described cancer as a "rich man's disease", linking the frequency of cancer with the consumption of costly animal foods. He commented that "the great sum of uric acid disease is increasing with the increased consumption of meat and tea, and cancer is steadily increasing with this."
During 1911–1912, Haig attempted to cure several cases of inoperable cancer with his uric-acid free diet consisting of biscuits, fruits and nuts.
[Whorton, James C. (2016). ''Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reformers''. Princeton University Press. pp. 245-246. ] The patients did not recover but Haig refused to let his theory take the blame. He stated that his patients were either too far advanced or lacked the determination to stay on his diet.
Reception
Medical community
Haig's book received a mixed response from the medical community during late 19th and early 20th century. Some physicians were influenced by Haig's uric acid theories.
A physician, J. Cuthbertson Walker claimed in ''
The British Medical Journal
''The BMJ'' is a fortnightly peer-reviewed medical journal, published by BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, which in turn is wholly-owned by the British Medical Association (BMA). ''The BMJ'' has editorial freedom from the BMA. It is one of the world' ...
'' that he tried Haig's diet for five and a half years. He stated that the diet had made him "almost wholly free" of severe attacks of migraine and rheumatism.
Haig received both criticism and praise from many in the medical profession. Later reviews disputed his thesis that uric acid was the cause of many different types of disease.
Haig's uric acid theories were widely cited as a source of debate in medical literature during 1896–1912, especially in the ''British Medical Journal''. However, by the 1920s, his theories were considered discredited by the
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association (AMA) is an American professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. This medical association was founded in 1847 and is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was 271,660 ...
and were rarely mentioned. In 1935,
Carl Malmberg wrote that "although Haig's theory was no longer accepted in scientific circles it continued to exert an influence on the general public as well as on a number of doctors."
Haig's book ''Uric Acid as a Factor in the Causation of Disease'' went through many editions and was thoroughly expanded and revised.
A 1898 review in the ''
Journal of the American Medical Association
''JAMA'' (''The Journal of the American Medical Association'') is a peer-reviewed medical journal published 48 times a year by the American Medical Association. It publishes original research, reviews, and editorials covering all aspects of ...
'' suggested that "to those not familiar with the work the book will be a revelation, not only on account of the undisputed facts which the author produces, but for the forceful manner in which they are arranged." A review in the ''Canadian Journal of Medicine and Surgery'' supported Haig's research on uric acid and described it as "exceedingly readable".
It was positively reviewed in ''
The New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal
''The New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal'' was a bimonthly medical journal published between 1844 and 1952, and the predecessor of the contemporary ''Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society''. It published Samuel A. CartwSamuel Cartwri ...
'' as an "honoured place in medicine". A negative review of the fourth edition in the ''Brooklyn Medical Journal'' found Haig's views too extreme. For example, the reviewer doubted Haig's assertion that uric acid controls the metabolism and combustion of the body and determines the incidence and course of disease.
A review in the ''
Chicago Medical Recorder'' for the fifth edition commented that Haig was too extreme in his views but the book should be read by every physician. The ''
New York Medical Journal'' found the fifth edition too long but concluded that "the book deserves the attention
of every physician who would perfect himself in his profession." The ''Columbus Medical Journal'' described the fifth edition as "invaluable as a clinical work on the subject".
The fifth edition was described by the ''Pacific Medical Journal'' as a "scientific and masterly volume of some 850 pages... the work is thoroughly scientific and trustworthy, and gives us the latest data regarding gout, rheumatism or blood diseases in general. We highly recommend it to every practitioner."
The same journal also recommended the sixth edition as "interesting to all scientific physicians". A review in the ''New York Medical Journal'' commented that "there can be no doubt that Dr. Haig is an original thinker, and has the courage which goes with
conviction. The sixth edition of this work does not disappoint the seeker for further hypotheses." A review for the sixth edition in ''The New England Medical Gazette'', concluded that "this book ought to be owned by every reading physician, and no member of our profession can afford to anything less than a student of good medical literature."
An article in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' in 1904 objected to Haig's uric acid theories but praised his dietary results.
Arthur P. Luff,
Francis W. E. Hare and Francis H. McCrudden disputed Haig's uric acid theories in 1905.
A 1908 review in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' for the seventh edition commented that although the book had a wide influence on English physicians the theories of Haig were repudiated by the scientific world.
The reviewer stated that the Haig's theories were erroneous but remained popular due to the conservatism amongst "physicians who hesitate to abandon old views and fail to keep abreast of scientific progress."
A review the same year published in the ''British Medical Journal'', commented that Haig's theory of the existence of uric acid in a colloid form was an unsubstantiated hypothesis.
The reviewer noted that Haig's original diet included eggs, fish and fruit which he said cured him of his headaches but these were later removed which made the diet too restrictive.
In 1909,
Alexander Bryce commented that although the uric-acid free diet is a valuable method of treatment for certain patients it is too extreme for ordinary purposes of nutrition in every-day life.
Arthur J. Cramp of the American Medical Association stated in 1914 that Haig's methods were unreliable and his theories are "utterly discredited".
Haig's uric-acid free diet has been cited as an example of a
fad diet
A fad diet is a diet that is popular, generally only for a short time, similar to fads in fashion, without being a standard scientific dietary recommendation, and often making unreasonable claims for fast weight loss or health improvements; ...
.
Historians have noted that after following Haig's diet which was very restrictive people sometimes succumbed to anaemia.
Vegetarian community
Haig is cited by historian James C. Whorton as being an important figure in the development of
vegetarian nutrition.
Although Haig's uric-acid free diet differed to a standard vegetarian diet he was a notable physician to be advocating a fleshless diet in the early 20th century and his theories were widely circulated.
Haig's diet influenced lacto-vegetarians Are Waerland and
Eustace Miles
Eustace Hamilton Miles (22 September 1868 – 20 December 1948) was an English real tennis player, author and restaurateur. He competed in the 1908 Summer Olympics and was a vegetarian who disliked that label and made his name selling health pro ...
.
Miles took up Haig's diet claiming multiple health benefits but later gave it up as he found that legumes aided his vitality.
Several vegetarian athletes adopted Haig's diet with success.
Karl Mann, a German vegetarian walker switched to Haig's diet in 1898 and won an international Dresden-Berlin race in 1902. Haig personally met Mann and examined him after the race.
Haig criticized the standard vegetarian diet based on grains and legumes for being low in protein and dissociated his diet from it. In 1908, he commented that "vegetarianism has been a great thorn in my side in advocating, as I do, a physiological and purin-free diet."
Haig was criticized by some vegetarians for condemning legumes, certain vegetables and whole wheat bread.
John Harvey Kellogg
John Harvey Kellogg (February 26, 1852 – December 14, 1943) was an American businessman, Invention, inventor, physician, and advocate of the Progressive Era, Progressive Movement. He was the director of the Battle Creek Sanitarium in Battle Cr ...
's journals praised Haig's rejection of flesh foods and uric acid research but advised against Haig's diet. Two uric-acid cookbooks influenced by Haig's research were published in the early 20th-century. These were ''
The Apsley Cookery Book'' by Mrs. John J. Webster in 1905 and ''Some Recipes for the Uric Acid Free Diet'' by Gertrude M. Haig in 1913.
Selected publications
Books
''The Formation and Excretion of Uric Acid''(1888)
''Uric Acid as a Factor in the Causation of Disease''(1896)
''Diet and Food''(1901)
''Uric Acid: An Epitome of the Subject''(1904)
''Uric Acid in the Clinic''(1910)
''Health Through Diet''(with
Kenneth G. Haig, 1913)
Papers
''The Relation of a Certain Form of Headache to the Excretion of Uric Acid''(''Medico-Chirurgical Transactions'', 1887)
''Does Uric Acid taken by mouth increase the Excretion of that substance in the Urine?''(''The Journal of Physiology'', 1893)
''The Causation of Anæmia and the Blood Changes Produced by Uric Acid''(''British Medical Journal'', 1893)
''The Formation of Uric Acid and Its Effects on the System''(''The Hospital'', 1894)
''In What Way Do Diet and Drugs which Clear the Blood of Uric Acid affect the Arthritis it Produces?''(''British Medical Journal'', 1895)
''The Uric Acid Diathesis''(''British Medical Journal'', 1896)
''On Uric Acid and Arterial Tension''(''British Medical Journal'', 1899)
''Some Effects Of Diet On The Excretion Of Uric Acid''(''British Medical Journal'', 1896)
''Some Remarks on the Excretion of Uric Acid and Its Relation to Solubility''(''The Journal of Physiology'', 1899)
''Cancer Antecedents''(''British Medical Journal'', 1902)
''Living on Bread''(''Journal of the American Medical Association'', 1902)
''The Causation, Prevention, and Treatment of Gout''(''Modern Medicine'', 1902)
''Some Mistakes Which May Prevent the Best Results of the Uric-Acid-Free Diet''(''Medical Record'', 1908)
''The Origin of Cancer''(''British Medical Journal'', 1909)
''The Nature and Origin of Cancer''(''British Medical Journal'', 1911)
''Gout of the Intestines''(''Medical Record'', 1912)
''Uric-Acid-Free Diet In Inoperable Cancer''(''British Medical Journal'', 1912)
See also
*
Carl Lange
*
W. A. Potts
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Haig, Alexander
1853 births
1924 deaths
19th-century Scottish medical doctors
20th-century Scottish medical doctors
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Alternative cancer treatment advocates
British cancer researchers
Deaths from atherosclerosis
Dietitians
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Gout researchers
Opponents of tea drinking
People from Perthshire
Scottish medical researchers
Scottish medical writers
Scottish vegetarianism activists