Alexander Atabekian
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Alexander Movsesi Atabekian (; 2 February 1869 – 5 December 1933) was an Armenian
physician A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
,
publisher Publishing is the activities of making information, literature, music, software, and other content, physical or digital, available to the public for sale or free of charge. Traditionally, the term publishing refers to the creation and distribu ...
and anarchist communist. Born in the region of
Nagorno-Karabakh Nagorno-Karabakh (, ; ) is a region in Azerbaijan, covering the southeastern stretch of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Part of the greater region of Karabakh, it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and Syunik Province, Syunik. Its ter ...
, he moved abroad to study medicine, enrolling in the
University of Geneva The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public university, public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by French theologian John Calvin as a Theology, theological seminary. It rema ...
in
Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
. There he began working as a
typesetter Typesetting is the composition of Written language, text for publication, display, or distribution by means of arranging metal type, physical ''type'' (or ''sort'') in mechanical systems or ''glyphs'' in digital systems representing ''char ...
and became experienced in publishing while working on the journal ''
Hunchak The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), is the oldest continuously-operating Armenian political party, founded in 1887 by a group of students in Geneva, Switzerland. It was the first socialist party to operate in the Ottoman Empire and i ...
'', the organ of the
Social Democrat Hunchakian Party The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), is the oldest continuously-operating Armenian political party, founded in 1887 by a group of students in Geneva, Switzerland. It was the first socialist party to operate in the Ottoman Empire and i ...
(SDHP). In 1890, he became a disciple of the Russian anarchist
Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...
and joined the
anarchist movement According to different scholars, the history of anarchism either goes back to ancient and prehistoric ideologies and social structures, or begins in the 19th century as a formal movement. As scholars and anarchist philosophers have held a rang ...
. In Geneva, Atabekian established the Anarchist Library, which published several seminal anarchist texts in the Armenian and
Russian language Russian is an East Slavic languages, East Slavic language belonging to the Balto-Slavic languages, Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. It is one of the four extant East Slavic languages, and is ...
s, with the intention of smuggling them into the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
. He also made links with the nascent
Armenian Revolutionary Federation The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (, abbr. ARF (ՀՅԴ) or ARF-D), also known as Dashnaktsutyun (Armenians, Armenian: Դաշնակցություն, Literal translation, lit. "Federation"), is an Armenian nationalism, Armenian nationalist a ...
(ARF), helping to set up publication of its newspaper ''
Droshak ''Droshak'' (''Troshag'', , "Flag") is the official organ of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) published in Tiflis (1890), Balkans (1890s), Geneva (1892-1914), Paris (1925–33), Beirut (1969–85), Athens (1986-96), Yerevan (since 1999). ...
'' in Geneva. He pursued his medical studies to
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, where he began publishing the journal ''Hamaink'', the first anarchist periodical in the Armenian language. He wrote extensively about the
oppression Oppression is malicious or unjust treatment of, or exercise of power over, a group of individuals, often in the form of governmental authority. Oppression may be overt or covert, depending on how it is practiced. No universally accepted model ...
of Armenians by the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
and European countries and elaborated his vision for a
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...
in Armenia. He ceased publication after hearing news of the
Hamidian massacres The Hamidian massacres also called the Armenian massacres, were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1890s. Estimated casualties ranged from 100,000 to 300,000, Akçam, Taner (2006) '' A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide a ...
, after which he re-established connections with other anarchists within the ARF. Together they issued a declaration to the
Second International The Second International, also called the Socialist International, was a political international of Labour movement, socialist and labour parties and Trade union, trade unions which existed from 1889 to 1916. It included representatives from mo ...
, denouncing both the actions of the Ottoman Empire and the complicity of its European allies. After graduating as a
Doctor of Medicine A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated MD, from the Latin language, Latin ) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the ''MD'' denotes a professional degree of ph ...
, Atabekian moved to
Rasht Rasht (; ) is a city in the Central District (Rasht County), Central District of Rasht County, Gilan province, Gilan province, Iran, serving as the capital of the province, the county, and the district. The city is also known as the "City of ...
, in
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
, where he worked as a physician and published a Persian edition of ''Hamaink''. He also worked as a
combat medic A combat medic is responsible for providing emergency medicine, emergency medical treatment at a point of wounding in a combat or training environment, as well as primary care and health protection and evacuation from a point of injury or illnes ...
during
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, during which he treated refugees that had fled the
Armenian genocide The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
. Following the
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution, social change in Russian Empire, Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia Dissolution of the Russian Empire, abolish its mona ...
of 1917, he moved to
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
and began writing works of anarchist theory and critique. He was critical of the rise of the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
, whom he saw as working in opposition to the will of the people. He instead advocated for the strengthening of the
co-operative movement The history of the cooperative movement concerns the origins and history of cooperatives across the world. Although cooperative arrangements, such as mutual insurance, and principles of cooperation existed long before, the cooperative movement bega ...
, seeing particular promise in Moscow's
house committees There are two main types of congressional committees in the United States House of Representatives, standing committees and select committees. Committee chairs are selected by whichever party is in the majority, and the minority party selects ...
as a means to establish socialist anarchism. He also acted as Kropotkin's personal doctor and confidant, staying by his side until his death. He then participated in the management of a museum of Kropotkin, which he maintained throughout the period of the
New Economic Policy The New Economic Policy (NEP) () was an economic policy of the Soviet Union proposed by Vladimir Lenin in 1921 as a temporary expedient. Lenin characterized the NEP in 1922 as an economic system that would include "a free market and capitalism, ...
(NEP). Atabekian suffered a stroke and died in his home in Moscow in 1933, although reference literature would end up reporting that he had died in the
Gulag The Gulag was a system of Labor camp, forced labor camps in the Soviet Union. The word ''Gulag'' originally referred only to the division of the Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies, Soviet secret police that was in charge of runnin ...
, following the repression of the anarchist movement during
Joseph Stalin's rise to power Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1952 and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1941 until his death in 1953, governed the country as a dictator from the late 1920s until his dea ...
. He has since been held as a key example of an anarchist from outside the Western tradition, and his work on
anti-authoritarianism Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing a ...
,
co-operative economics Cooperative (or co-operative) economics is a field of economics that incorporates co-operative studies, cooperative studies and political economy toward the study and management of cooperatives. History Cooperative economics developed as both a ...
and tenants rights has been studied in Russia and Ukraine.


Biography


Early life and activism

Alexander Movsesi Atabekian was born on 2 February 1869, in
Shushi Shusha (, ) or Shushi () is a city in Azerbaijan, in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Situated at an altitude of 1,400–1,800 metres (4,600–5,900 ft) in the Karabakh mountains, the city was a mountain resort in the Soviet Union, Soviet ...
, a city in the region of
Nagorno-Karabakh Nagorno-Karabakh (, ; ) is a region in Azerbaijan, covering the southeastern stretch of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Part of the greater region of Karabakh, it spans the area between Lower Karabakh and Syunik Province, Syunik. Its ter ...
. He was born into an Armenian noble family and was the son of a
physician A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
. After he graduated from
secondary school A secondary school, high school, or senior school, is an institution that provides secondary education. Some secondary schools provide both ''lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) and ''upper secondary education'' (ages 14 to 18), i.e., b ...
in his hometown, in 1889, he left the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
and went abroad to study
medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
at the
University of Geneva The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public university, public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by French theologian John Calvin as a Theology, theological seminary. It rema ...
. During his
undergraduate education Undergraduate education is education conducted after secondary education and before postgraduate education, usually in a college or university. It typically includes all postsecondary programs up to the level of a bachelor's degree. For example, ...
, Atabekian worked as a
typesetter Typesetting is the composition of Written language, text for publication, display, or distribution by means of arranging metal type, physical ''type'' (or ''sort'') in mechanical systems or ''glyphs'' in digital systems representing ''char ...
for
Avetis Nazarbekian Avetis Vardani Nazarbekian (, 1866–1939), also known as ''Nazarbek'', ''Avo'' and ''Lerents'', was an Armenian poet, journalist, political activist and revolutionary. He was one of the founders of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party. Biography ...
's newspaper ''
Hunchak The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), is the oldest continuously-operating Armenian political party, founded in 1887 by a group of students in Geneva, Switzerland. It was the first socialist party to operate in the Ottoman Empire and i ...
'' – the official organ of the
Social Democrat Hunchakian Party The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), is the oldest continuously-operating Armenian political party, founded in 1887 by a group of students in Geneva, Switzerland. It was the first socialist party to operate in the Ottoman Empire and i ...
(SDHP) – which publicised reports about rising
anti-Armenian sentiment Anti-Armenian sentiment, also known as anti-Armenianism and Armenophobia, is a diverse spectrum of negative feelings, dislikes, fears, aversion, racism, derision and/or prejudice towards Armenians, Armenia, and Armenian culture. Historically, an ...
in the
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
and
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
s. He left the SDHP and became an anarchist communist in 1890, after reading ''Words of a Rebel'', a collection of writings by
Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...
. Atabekian then began working at a Ukrainian publishing house, which he used to print translations of anarchist works in the
Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...
and
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
languages. He also published a number of open letters, on behalf of the international anarchist movement, to Armenian peasants and revolutionaries. Before long, Atabekian had met numerous prominent members of the anarchist movement, becoming close friends with Kropotkin, Reclus and
Jean Grave Jean Grave (; October 16, 1854, Le Breuil-sur-Couze – December 8, 1939, Vienne-en-Val) was an important activist in French anarchism and the international anarchist communism movements. He was the editor of three major anarchist periodicals, ...
. He also met
Max Nettlau Max Heinrich Hermann Reinhardt Nettlau (; 1865–1944) was a German anarchist and historian. His extensive collection or archives was sold to the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam in 1935. He lived continuously in Amsterdam f ...
, Paraskev Stoyanov,
Luigi Galleani Luigi Galleani (; 12 August 1861 – 4 November 1931) was an Italian insurrectionary anarchism, insurrectionary anarchist and Communism, communist best known for his advocacy of "propaganda of the deed", a strategy of political assassinations ...
and Jacques Gross; with whom he printed a poster in memory of the
Haymarket martyrs The Haymarket affair, also known as the Haymarket massacre, the Haymarket riot, the Haymarket Square riot, or the Haymarket Incident, was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on May 4, 1886 at Haymarket Square i ...
, which they plastered throughout Geneva.


Anarchist publishing work

After the outbreak of the Russian famine of 1891–1892, Atabekian initiated an effort to begin smuggling anarchist propaganda into the Russian Empire, intending to print texts in both the Russian and Armenian languages. Atabekian and Stoyanov travelled to
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
, where they visited Kropotkin. They informed him of their intentions to start delivering pamphlets to Ukraine and the Caucasus, where they had established connections with some individual anarchists. Atabekian then returned to Geneva and established a printing press in his own bedroom; he called it the Anarchist Library (), and it would become the first Russian anarchist propaganda circle since
Zamfir Arbore Zamfir Constantin Arbore (; born Zamfir Ralli, , ''Zemfiriyi Konstantinovich Arborye-Ralli''; also known as Zamfir Arbure, Zamfir Rally, Zemphiri Ralli and Aivaza;Felea (1971), p. 9 November 14, 1848 – April 2 or April 3, 1933) was a Bukovina, ...
's own in the 1870s. He had planned to start by publishing a Russian language edition of ''Words of a Rebel'', but Kropotkin was overwhelmed by work and unable to translate more than a few chapters, leaving the rest to
Varlam Cherkezishvili Varlam Nikolozi dze Cherkezishvili ( ka, ვარლამ ნიკოლოზის ძე ჩერქეზიშვილი; 15 September 1846 – 18 August 1925) was a Georgian aristocrat and journalist involved in Georgian anarchist an ...
. Atabekian also initially lacked the resources to publish a periodical, so decided to start out publishing individual pamphlets. His first publication was a Russian language edition of
Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, s ...
's ''The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State'', which was followed in 1892 by Kropotkin's ''The Destruction of the State''. In 1893, he published Kropotkin's ''Political Rights'', ''Anarchism'' and ''Spirit of Revolt'', as well as Reclus' ''To My Brother the Peasant'', and
Errico Malatesta Errico Malatesta (4 December 1853 – 22 July 1932) was an Italian anarchist propagandist, theorist and revolutionary socialist. He edited several radical newspapers and spent much of his life exiled and imprisoned, having been jailed and expel ...
's ''Between Peasants'', the latter of which Atabekian wrote a preface directing it towards Armenians. After publishing the first batch of pamphlets, he considered selling his printing equipment to the
Free Russian Press The Free Russian Press (, also: Вольная русская книгопечатня) was a printing company and a publishing house launched in 1853 in London by Alexander Hertzen with a view to becoming the 'uncensored voice of free Russia'. H ...
, but was dissuaded by Kropotkin, due to their ideological differences. In 1894, he published Kropotkin's ''Revolutionary Minorities'' and Grave's ''Why We Are Revolutionaries''. The first pages of these pamphlets included the words "Authorised by the Ministry of Education", printed in the
Turkish language Turkish ( , , also known as 'Turkish of Turkey') is the most widely spoken of the Turkic languages, a member of Oghuz languages, Oghuz branch with around 90 million speakers. It is the national language of Turkey and one of two official languag ...
. These pamphlets were circulated widely among Armenian immigrant circles and later in Armenia itself, following Stoyanov's own distribution efforts. Despite their efforts, Atabekian was largely unsuccessful in smuggling the pamphlets into the Russian Empire, but their work was taken up only a few years later by another Russian anarchist group in Geneva. During this period, he also formed links with the nascent
Armenian Revolutionary Federation The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (, abbr. ARF (ՀՅԴ) or ARF-D), also known as Dashnaktsutyun (Armenians, Armenian: Դաշնակցություն, Literal translation, lit. "Federation"), is an Armenian nationalism, Armenian nationalist a ...
(ARF) and helped to publish its newspaper ''
Droshak ''Droshak'' (''Troshag'', , "Flag") is the official organ of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) published in Tiflis (1890), Balkans (1890s), Geneva (1892-1914), Paris (1925–33), Beirut (1969–85), Athens (1986-96), Yerevan (since 1999). ...
'', together with
Stepan Zorian Stepan Zorian (Armenian Language, Armenian: Ստեփան Զօրեան, 1867–1919), better known by his ''nom de guerre'' Rostom (), was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and a leader of the Armenian national li ...
. After graduating with his
bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ...
, Atabekian moved to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
in order to continue his medical studies. He moved first to
Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...
, where he spent a few months working at a state-of-the-art clinic. During his time there, he witnessed the
assassination of Sadi Carnot On 24 June 1894, in Lyon, France, French President Sadi Carnot was assassinated by Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio. Acting in retaliation for the execution of Ravachol and the subsequent ratification of the anti-anarchist '' lois sc ...
by Sante Caserio, as well as the subsequent anti-Italian reprisals, which turned him against the anarchist strategy of " motiveless terrorism". His publishing work slowed down at this time, but didn't stop entirely, as he waited for further sheets of ''Words of a Rebel'' and began preparing to publish a magazine in the Armenian language. He then moved on to Paris, where he began publication of ''Hamaink'' (), the first anarchist periodical in the Armenian language. It ran for five issues, each made up of eight pages, which contained articles about anarchism and the
Armenian national movement The Armenian national movement ( ''Hay azgayin-azatagrakan sharzhum'') included social, cultural, but primarily political and military movements that reached their height during World War I and the following years, initially seeking improved statu ...
. Atabekian thought that Armenia was ripe for revolution, due to the conditions created by the Ottoman Empire's
despotism In political science, despotism () is a government, form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute Power (social and political), power. Normally, that entity is an individual, the despot (as in an autocracy), but societies whi ...
and the exploitation of Armenian labour in Europe and America. He called for the collectivisation of land and the establishment of
self-governance Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority (sociology), authority. It may refer to pers ...
in Armenia. Although he was staunchly opposed to Ottoman rule in Armenia, he also cautioned against an intervention in the region by the
Entente powers The Allies or the Entente (, ) was an international military coalition of countries led by the French Republic, the United Kingdom, the Russian Empire, the United States, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of Japan against the Central Powers ...
. Atabekian also published articles by the ARF, but supplemented them with his own criticisms of the
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
and
centralisation Centralisation or centralization (American English) is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning, decision-making, and framing strategies and policies, become concentrated within a particular ...
he'd experienced within the structures of Armenian political parties. While it focused largely on Armenia, the journal also gave attention to the revolutionary anarchist movements in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
,
Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
,
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
,
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
and
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
. Atabekian himself didn't sign any of the articles he wrote, in order to protect himself from prosecution for his anarchist activities. ''Hamaink'' quickly gained popularity among the Armenian diaspora throughout Europe, with Stoyanov helping to distribute it in the Balkans, Caucasus and Turkey.


Move east

Atabekian ceased all of his publication activities after receiving news of the
Hamidian massacres The Hamidian massacres also called the Armenian massacres, were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1890s. Estimated casualties ranged from 100,000 to 300,000, Akçam, Taner (2006) '' A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide a ...
, which emotionally devastated him. As Armenian resistance to the anti-Armenian massacres in the Ottoman Empire manifested, he established connections with anarchist and libertarian socialist activists within the ARF. The anarchists of the ARF blended socialist anarchism with a form of
Armenian nationalism Armenian nationalism in the modern period has its roots in the romantic nationalism of Mikayel Chamchian (1738–1823) and generally defined as the creation of a free, independent and united Armenia formulated as the Armenian Cause ( ). Armenia ...
, influenced in part by the
Russian nihilist movement The Russian nihilist movementOccasionally, ''nihilism'' will be capitalized when referring to the Russian movement though this is not ubiquitous nor does it correspond with Russian usage. was a philosophical, cultural, and revolutionary move ...
. Together with other Armenian libertarians, Atabekian wrote a declaration to the London Congress of the
Second International The Second International, also called the Socialist International, was a political international of Labour movement, socialist and labour parties and Trade union, trade unions which existed from 1889 to 1916. It included representatives from mo ...
; he argued that European powers were complicit in the Hamidian massacres and declared the beginning of a
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...
in
West Asia West Asia (also called Western Asia or Southwest Asia) is the westernmost region of Asia. As defined by most academics, UN bodies and other institutions, the subregion consists of Anatolia, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Mesopotamia, the Armenian ...
. In 1896, Atabekian graduated as a
Doctor of Medicine A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated MD, from the Latin language, Latin ) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the ''MD'' denotes a professional degree of ph ...
. Prohibited from returning to the Russian Empire due to a sentence of exile for his anarchist activities, he moved first to
Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
, where he provided medical assistance to Armenians that had fled the Hamidian massacres. His correspondence from this time indicates that he then travelled through
Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...
and
İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...
, where he attempted to promote anarchism among the local Armenian communities. By the turn of the 20th century, he had settled in
Rasht Rasht (; ) is a city in the Central District (Rasht County), Central District of Rasht County, Gilan province, Gilan province, Iran, serving as the capital of the province, the county, and the district. The city is also known as the "City of ...
, in the
Gilan province Gilan Province () is one of the 31 provinces of Iran, in the northwest of the country and southwest of the Caspian Sea. Its capital is the city of Rasht. The province lies along the Caspian Sea, in Iran's Regions of Iran, Region 3, west of ...
of
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
. There he worked as a physician and published an Iranian edition of ''Hamaink'', which received a
Persian language Persian ( ), also known by its endonym and exonym, endonym Farsi (, Fārsī ), is a Western Iranian languages, Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian languages, Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian subdivision ...
translation. During this time, he also trained the young
Ardeshir Ovanessian Ardeshir Ovanessian (; 1905–1990) was an Iranian communist leader of Armenian origin. Biography He was born around 1905 in Rasht, to an Armenian family originally hailing from Salmas. After completing a pharmacist apprenticeship (the profession ...
as a
pharmacist A pharmacist, also known as a chemist in English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English, is a healthcare professional who is knowledgeable about preparation, mechanism of action, clinical usage and legislation of medications in ...
, after which Ovanessian went on to become a leader of the Iranian Communist Party. After the outbreak of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, Atabekian was granted permission to return to the Russian Empire, which was experiencing such a shortage of
combat medic A combat medic is responsible for providing emergency medicine, emergency medical treatment at a point of wounding in a combat or training environment, as well as primary care and health protection and evacuation from a point of injury or illnes ...
s that it began ignoring their backgrounds. Atabekian was quickly appointed to head a
field hospital A field hospital is a temporary hospital or mobile medical unit that takes care of casualties on-site before they can be safely transported to more permanent facilities. This term was initially used in military medicine (such as the Mobile ...
in
Baku Baku (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Azerbaijan, largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region. Baku is below sea level, which makes it the List of capital ci ...
, but he fell severely ill with
typhoid fever Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a disease caused by '' Salmonella enterica'' serotype Typhi bacteria, also called ''Salmonella'' Typhi. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often th ...
and went on
sick leave Sick leave (or paid sick days or sick pay) is paid time off from work that workers can use to stay home to address their health needs without losing pay. It differs from paid vacation time or time off work to deal with personal matters, because ...
. He recovered by early 1915 and was appointed to head a
military hospital A military hospital is a hospital owned or operated by a military. They are often reserved for the use of military personnel and their dependents, but in some countries are made available to civilians as well. They may or may not be located on a m ...
in
Kars province Kars Province (; Azerbaijani: Qars Rayonu; ; ) is a province of Turkey, located in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its closed border with Armenia. Its area is 10,193 km2, and its population is 274,829 (2022). The pr ...
, where his wife Ekaterina was working on a
residency Residency may refer to: * Artist-in-residence, a program to sponsor the residence and work of visual artists, writers, musicians, etc. * Concert residency, a series of concerts performed at one venue * Domicile (law), the act of establishing or m ...
. Here he treated not only wounded soldiers but also civilians, including refugees that had fled the
Armenian genocide The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily t ...
. He travelled constantly to different fields during this period, witnessing the aftermath of battles in Karakilisa, Khnus and
Muş Muş (; ; ) is a city in eastern Turkey. It is the seat of Muş Province and Muş District.İl Beled ...
. By the end of 1916, his hospital had run out of medicine, and his requests to Moscow for resupply went unfulfilled, which led to most of the medical staff dispersing and the hospital effectively dissolving. Atabekian left the front line and returned to Rasht.


Revolution writings in Russia

In the wake of the
February Revolution The February Revolution (), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and sometimes as the March Revolution or February Coup was the first of Russian Revolution, two revolutions which took place in Russia ...
of 1917, Atabekian moved to
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
, where he once again returned to political activism. After the subsequent
October Revolution The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Historiography in the Soviet Union, Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of Russian Revolution, two r ...
, he wrote a series of articles for ''
Anarkhiia ''Anarkhiia'' was Russian language, Russian weekly, then daily newspaper published by the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups. It was edited by German Askarov. It was first launched in September 1917, published from the headquarters of the MFAG i ...
'', calling for anarchists to lead a social revolution and criticising the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
' seizure of power. He also published an open letter to Kropotkin, in which he sharply criticised the
Imperial Russian Army The Imperial Russian Army () was the army of the Russian Empire, active from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was organized into a standing army and a state militia. The standing army consisted of Regular army, regular troops and ...
's attacks against the local Armenian and Kurdish populations, comparing them to the German occupation of Belgium. During this time, Atabekian began referring to himself as a "political atheist", as he believed any form of power was inevitably opposed to the will of the people. In his account of the events, ''Bloody Week in Moscow'', Atabekian depicted the October Revolution as a
utopian A utopia ( ) typically describes an imagined community or society that possesses highly desirable or near-perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book ''Utopia'', which describes a fictional island soci ...
"
revolution from above A revolution from above refers to major political and social changes that are imposed by an élite on the population it dominates. It usually occurs in urban areas in a capital city. By contrast, the plain term "revolution" suggests that pressure f ...
", one that was carried out against the will of the people, who were largely indifferent to the revolution, and which he predicted would inevitably fail as a result. He compared the Bolsheviks' actions with the
Marxist Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflic ...
conception of
historical materialism Historical materialism is Karl Marx's theory of history. Marx located historical change in the rise of Class society, class societies and the way humans labor together to make their livelihoods. Karl Marx stated that Productive forces, techno ...
, the latter of which argued that revolution could only occur when the material conditions were correct, and concluded that such conditions were missing from the October Revolution, as it was imposed from above rather than coming from the people themselves. He then called for anarchists to begin agitating for the construction of a new society through
workers' self-management Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-managed economy, ...
. Atabekian placed his hopes in Moscow's "
house committees There are two main types of congressional committees in the United States House of Representatives, standing committees and select committees. Committee chairs are selected by whichever party is in the majority, and the minority party selects ...
", which had been established in order to protect the common interests of tenants and regulate landlords to ensure regular repairs and central heating. Atabekian believed that these committees could be the means by which to fulfill people's needs and build a new
social order The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social orde ...
, without
political parties A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or p ...
. By the outbreak of the
Russian Civil War The Russian Civil War () was a multi-party civil war in the former Russian Empire sparked by the 1917 overthrowing of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. I ...
, Atabekian began advocating for the creation of an independent anarchist army, established along
decentralised Decentralization or decentralisation is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those related to planning and decision-making, are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group and gi ...
and
anti-authoritarian Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing a ...
lines, which could defend people against the rising
White movement The White movement,. The old spelling was retained by the Whites to differentiate from the Reds. also known as the Whites, was one of the main factions of the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. It was led mainly by the Right-wing politics, right- ...
. This call was notably taken up by
Nestor Makhno Nestor Ivanovych Makhno (, ; 7 November 1888 – 25 July 1934), also known as Bat'ko Makhno ( , ), was a Ukrainians, Ukrainian anarchist revolutionary and the commander of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine during the Ukrainian War o ...
, who formed a number of partisan detachments in villages throughout Ukraine. On 12 April 1918, the Bolsheviks initiated a wave of political repression against the anarchist movement, forcibly dissolving the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups and shutting down ''Anarkhiia''. Before long, Atabekian and had established a new printing
cooperative A cooperative (also known as co-operative, coöperative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomy, autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned a ...
, from which they published their new periodical ''Pochin''. Edited by Atabekian, who also carried out the typesetting himself, ''Pochin'' ran for 11 issues, publishing letters from Peter Kropotkin and Atabekian's own accounts from West Asia. In the journal, Atabekian developed on Kropotkin's theories of
mutual aid Mutual aid is an organizational model where voluntary, collaborative exchanges of resources and services for common benefit take place amongst community members to overcome social, economic, and political barriers to meeting common needs. This ...
and
co-operative economics Cooperative (or co-operative) economics is a field of economics that incorporates co-operative studies, cooperative studies and political economy toward the study and management of cooperatives. History Cooperative economics developed as both a ...
. Atabekian considered
cooperation Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English and, with a varied usage along time, coöperation) takes place when a group of organisms works or acts together for a collective benefit to the group as opposed to working in competition ...
to be a "law of life", stemming from the
evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...
of
eusociality Eusociality ( Greek 'good' and social) is the highest level of organization of sociality. It is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care (including care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations wit ...
and
human society A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soc ...
, and saw it as essential to establishing socialist anarchism. From an analysis of history, he concluded that the
co-operative movement The history of the cooperative movement concerns the origins and history of cooperatives across the world. Although cooperative arrangements, such as mutual insurance, and principles of cooperation existed long before, the cooperative movement bega ...
distinguished itself from
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
and other economic forms like
state socialism State socialism is a political and economic ideology within the socialist movement that advocates state ownership of the means of production. This is intended either as a temporary measure, or as a characteristic of socialism in the transition ...
, not only because it was unmotivated by
profit Profit may refer to: Business and law * Profit (accounting), the difference between the purchase price and the costs of bringing to market * Profit (economics), normal profit and economic profit * Profit (real property), a nonpossessory inter ...
and sought to abolish
wage labour Wage labour (also wage labor in American English), usually referred to as paid work, paid employment, or paid labour, refers to the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer in which the worker sells their labour power under ...
, but also because it upheld a
morality Morality () is the categorization of intentions, Decision-making, decisions and Social actions, actions into those that are ''proper'', or ''right'', and those that are ''improper'', or ''wrong''. Morality can be a body of standards or principle ...
based on "
freedom Freedom is the power or right to speak, act, and change as one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom is often associated with liberty and autonomy in the sense of "giving oneself one's own laws". In one definition, something is "free" i ...
,
equality Equality generally refers to the fact of being equal, of having the same value. In specific contexts, equality may refer to: Society * Egalitarianism, a trend of thought that favors equality for all people ** Political egalitarianism, in which ...
and
justice In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the ''Institutes (Justinian), Inst ...
". He also defined the co-operative movement in opposition to the
state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
, and believed that the abolition of the state would give way to a co-operative society based on mutual aid and voluntary labour. He thus declared co-operative movement to be in opposition to state socialism, which he decried as
imperialistic Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power ( diplomatic power and cultural imperialism). Imperialism focu ...
and limited by its own
border Borders are generally defined as geography, geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by polity, political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other administrative divisio ...
s, whereas co-operative movement was internationalist in its methods. Atabekian repeatedly attempted to recruit Peter Kropotkin to write for ''Pochin'', but he refused each time, as he was focused on writing what would be his final work, '' Ethics: Origin and Development''. Atabekian nevertheless kept Kropotkin updated on the publication, receiving constructive criticism about an article that distinguished between
territoriality In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal consistently defends against conspecific competition (or, occasionally, against animals of other species) using agonistic behaviors or (less commonly) real physical aggression. ...
and
statehood A state is a political entity that regulates society and the population within a definite territory. Government is considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states. A country often has a single state, with various administrat ...
, which Atabekian heavily revised before releasing. On 24 October 1920, Atabekian was arrested by the
Cheka The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission ( rus, Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия, r=Vserossiyskaya chrezvychaynaya komissiya, p=fsʲɪrɐˈsʲijskəjə tɕrʲɪzvɨˈtɕæjnəjə kɐˈmʲisʲɪjə, links=yes), ...
, on charges of
anti-Soviet agitation Anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda (ASA) () was a criminal offence in the Soviet Union. Initially, the term was interchangeably used with counter-revolutionary agitation. The latter term was in use immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 ...
. During his interrogation, he attempted to prove his dedication to the revolution and distinguished between the charge of being "anti-Soviet", which he denied, and that of being "anti-State", which he openly admitted to. He was initially sentenced to two years in a labour camp, but this was quickly commuted to six months. On 2 January 1921, Atabekian was prematurely released from prison, following a request for amnesty made by Peter Kropotkin to
Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich Vladimir Dmitriyevich Bonch-Bruyevich (; sometimes spelled Bonch-Bruevich; in Polish Boncz-Brujewicz;  – 14 July 1955) was a Soviet politician, revolutionary, historian, writer and Old Bolshevik. He was Vladimir Lenin's personal secretary ...
. Atabekian then tried to appeal for the lifting of the ban on Pochin, eventually receiving permission from
Lev Kamenev Lev Borisovich Kamenev. ( Rozenfeld; – 25 August 1936) was a Russian revolutionary and Soviet politician. A prominent Old Bolsheviks, Old Bolshevik, Kamenev was a leading figure in the early Soviet government and served as a Deputy Premier ...
to resume publication.


Treatment and death of Kropotkin

By 1921, Kropotkin had retired to
Dmitrov Dmitrov () is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, town and the administrative center of Dmitrovsky District, Moscow Oblast, Dmitrovsky District in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located to the north of Moscow on the Yakhroma River and the Mosc ...
, a small town outside the Russian capital, where Atabekian visited him regularly. During this period, Atabekian had returned to his practice as a physician, and the two frequently exchanged friendly correspondence. After a meeting with the Bolshevik leader
Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov ( 187021 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He was the first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until Death and state funeral of ...
, Kropotkin informed Atabekian that he had requested an amnesty for one of his friends that had been taken hostage by the Cheka. Kropotkin expressed regret over making his visit, but when he asked Atabekian if he disapproved, his friend responded that he would "approve of pleading even to the Tsar to save those who were condemned to death." Kropotkin went on to say that he had asked Lenin to put a stop to the
Red Terror The Red Terror () was a campaign of political repression and Mass killing, executions in Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Russia which was carried out by the Bolsheviks, chiefly through the Cheka, the Bolshevik secret police ...
, fearing a repeat of the
Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (French: ''La Terreur'', literally "The Terror") was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the French First Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and Capital punishment in France, nu ...
during the French Revolution, which he thought had frightened Lenin enough to reign in the executions. Kropotkin also told Atabekian that he worried the Bolsheviks might "bury the revolution". When Kropotkin fell ill with
pneumonia Pneumonia is an Inflammation, inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as Pulmonary alveolus, alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of Cough#Classification, productive or dry cough, ches ...
, Atabekian travelled to Dmitrov to provide him with medical care. Atabekian was joined by five other physicians, including Dmitry Pletnyov, who had been dispatched to treat Kropotkin by Lenin himself. Despite the severe case, his doctors concluded that he could still recover from his ailments; Kropotkin himself expressed that he didn't want to die, as he still had work to do. As his condition got worse, and Kropotkin began to accept that he was dying, he expressed regret that he had "give trouble to so many good people." He continued to talk with his friends until his last moments, once remarking to them, "what a hard business—dying". Kropotkin died on 8 February 1921, with his family and Atabekian by his side.
Emma Goldman Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Russian-born Anarchism, anarchist revolutionary, political activist, and writer. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europ ...
and
Alexander Berkman Alexander Berkman (November 21, 1870June 28, 1936) was a Russian-American anarchist and author. He was a leading member of the anarchist movement in the early 20th century, famous for both his political activism and his writing. Be ...
arrived the following day, to belatedly pay their respects. The Bolshevik government offered to give Kropotkin a state funeral, but his family declined, instead forming a committee to arrange his funeral. Atabekian was among the co-organisers of the funeral. Kropotkin's family and friends were given permission to use his ancestral home in Moscow, which they turned into a museum for his life and work. Atabekian served on the , together with and .


Later work and death

On 29 August 1921, the Cheka arrested Atabekian again, on the same charges as his previous arrest, but the intervention of Lev Kamenev led to his release the following month. The Soviet authorities again briefly lifted the ban on the publication of Pochin, but it was banned again in 1922 and Atabekian's printing equipment was confiscated, bringing an end to his publishing career. In the final volume of ''Pochin'', he published a letter from Kropotkin, dated to late 1918. Without his publishing work, he attempted to earn a living doing various odd jobs, eventually returning to work as a physician. Atabekian was also permitted by the authorities to continue his work with the Kropotkin Museum Committee throughout most of the period of the
New Economic Policy The New Economic Policy (NEP) () was an economic policy of the Soviet Union proposed by Vladimir Lenin in 1921 as a temporary expedient. Lenin characterized the NEP in 1922 as an economic system that would include "a free market and capitalism, ...
(NEP). In 1927, Atabekian and other anarchists organised a demonstration against the execution of
Sacco and Vanzetti Nicola Sacco (; April 22, 1891 – August 23, 1927) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (; June 11, 1888 – August 23, 1927) were Italian immigrants and anarchists who were controversially convicted of murdering Alessandro Berardelli and Frederick Parm ...
, with the permission of the Moscow Soviet. By this time, the Kropotkin Museum Committee had collapsed into factional infighting, which was beginning to affect the entire Russian anarchist movement. Atabekian, who saw the committee as an organ of anarchist agitation, clashed with Kropotkin's widow Sofia, who wanted to avoid any conflict with the authorities. Atabekian and other anarchists were ultimately expelled from the committee, but even this did not save the Museum from its eventual closure. Following
Joseph Stalin's rise to power Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1952 and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1941 until his death in 1953, governed the country as a dictator from the late 1920s until his dea ...
and the beginning of
totalitarianism Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public s ...
in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
, the anarchist movement was severely repressed. Before long, all the last members of the Kropotkin Museum Committee had been arrested, deported or killed; and the museum itself was closed by the Soviet authorities. In 1930, Atabekian suffered a
stroke Stroke is a medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to a part of the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemor ...
, which forced him into
retirement Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their j ...
. He spent the last years of his life in his flat in Moscow, where he lived with his son, before dying on 5 December 1933. But sources have disagreed on the exact details of his death, with some saying he died in a forced labour camp or disappeared into exile. In 1951, the Russian anarchist magazine ''
Delo Truda ''The Cause of Labor'' () was a anarcho-communism, libertarian communist magazine published by exiled Anarchism in Russia, Russian and Anarchism in Ukraine, Ukrainian anarchists. Initially under the editorship of Peter Arshinov, after it publis ...
'' published memoirs from I. Zhemchuzhnikov, a doctor who worked in the Gulag. He reported that in 1940, while working in a
lagpunkt A lagpunkt (), literally "camp point" or ''lagotdelenie'' (, literally "camp detachment), may be translated as "subcamp", "camp unit", or "camp site" was a separate settlement subordinated to a major Gulag forced labor camp. Lagpunkts were conveni ...
in
Temnikov Temnikov (; , ''Temnikav''; , ''Čopolt oš'') is a town and the administrative center of Temnikovsky District in the Republic of Mordovia, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 7,243. History The oldest town in the Republic ...
, he had treated an old anarchist called Alexei or Alexander Atabekian, who died of a heart attack towards the end of that year. This version was later taken up by reference literature, including the
International Institute of Social History International is an adjective (also used as a noun) meaning "between nations". International may also refer to: Music Albums * ''International'' (Kevin Michael album), 2011 * ''International'' (New Order album), 2002 * ''International'' (The T ...
and the ''International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest''. American historian
Paul Avrich Paul Avrich (August 4, 1931 – February 16, 2006) was an American historian specializing in the 19th and early 20th-century anarchist movement in Russia and the United States. He taught at Queens College, City University of New York, for his ...
also reported that he was among those arrested and imprisoned in the
Gulag The Gulag was a system of Labor camp, forced labor camps in the Soviet Union. The word ''Gulag'' originally referred only to the division of the Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies, Soviet secret police that was in charge of runnin ...
, and that he died either in prison or in exile within a few years of 1929.


Legacy

Although Marxism-Leninism came to supplant Atabekian's anarchism in Armenia, anarchist ideas gained traction within the
Armenian diaspora The Armenian diaspora refers to the communities of Armenians outside Armenia and other locations where Armenians are considered an indigenous population. Since antiquity, Armenians have established communities in many regions throughout the world. ...
, inspiring the publication of Armenian-language anarchist journals in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. Today Atabekian is considered one of the foremost thinkers of post-classical anarchism in the former Russian Empire. His analysis of the October Revolution was taken up by later generations of anarchists in the 20th and 21st centuries. In an April 1924 issue of the Argentine anarchist newspaper ', Atabekian's writings were quoted by
Ukrainian Jewish The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century). Important Jewish religious and cultural move ...
anarchist
Anatolii Horelik Hryhorii Horelik (), commonly known by his pseudonym Anatolii Horelik (; 1890–1956), was a Ukrainian Jewish anarchist activist that agitated in Donbas during the 1917 Revolution. Biography Hryhorii Horelik was born into a lower-middle-class f ...
, who warned against disregarding ethical considerations in revolutionary methods. In the 21st century, he has been cited as a seminal example of a first-wave anarchist thinker from outside the Western tradition. Atabekian's advocacy of house committees has also been taken up by the Ukrainian urbanists Olena Zaika and Oleh Masiuk, who cited his work as foundational to research on the reorganisation of urban space. Although Atabekian left quite a large archive of his work, it was destroyed by a bomb that fell on his family's house during the
Battle of Moscow The Battle of Moscow was a military campaign that consisted of two periods of strategically significant fighting on a sector of the Eastern Front during World War II, between October 1941 and January 1942. The Soviet defensive effort frustrated H ...
. Information about Atabekian is also scarce in the Russian state archives, which has resulted in some difficulty in forming a complete biographical picture of his life. Some of Atabekian's papers have been preserved and archived by the International Institute of Social History, which collected his letters from Peter Kropotkin into the world's largest archive of Kropotkin's works.


Selected works

;Thesis
De la pathogénie de l'angine de poitrine
/ "On the Pathogenesis of Angina Pectoris" (1896, ed. Henri Stapelmohr) ;Letters *"To the Armenian Villagers" (1890) *"Letter to Armenian Revolutionaries from an International Anarchist Organization" (1890) *"To the Revolutionary and Libertarian Socialists" (1896)

/
Open Letter to P. A. Kropotkin
(1917, ''Anarkhiia'' no. 7) ;Pamphlets

/
The Bloody Week in Moscow
(1917)

/ " ttps://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alexander-atabekian-is-anarchist-social-revolution-possible Is Anarchist Social Revolution Possible? (1918, Pochin)
Основы земской финансовой организации без власти и принуждения
/
Fundamentals of Zemstvo Financial Organisation Without Power and Coercion
(1918)

/
A Break in Anarchist Doctrine
(1918, Pochin)

/ " ttps://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alexander-atabekian-social-tasks-of-the-house-committees Social Tasks of the House Committees (1918, Pochin)
Дух погромный
/
The Pogrom Spirit
(1919, Pochin)

/
Cooperation and Anarchism
(1919, Pochin) ;Articles
Կառավարության կոչումը
/
The Call of the Government
(1894, ''Hamaink'' no. 1)
Յեղափոխական կազմակերպութիւն
/
Revolutionary Organization
(1894, ''Hamaink'' no. 3)

/
The Problem of a Free Army
(1918, ''Anarkhiia'' no. 83)

/
Counter-Revolution Goes Wild
(1918, ''Anarkhiia'' no. 90)

/
Communism and Cooperation
(1920, ''Pochin'' no. 3)

/
Territoriality and Anarchism
(1920, ''Pochin'' no. 11)

/
In Memory of P.A. Kropotkin
(1922, ''Pochin'' no. 6–7) ;Collections *''Против власти: сборник статей'' / ''Against Power: a collection of articles'' (2013, Librocom; ; )


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Atabekian Articles from "Hamaynq" (in Armenian)Alexander Atabekian Papers (ARCH00246)
International Institute of Social History International is an adjective (also used as a noun) meaning "between nations". International may also refer to: Music Albums * ''International'' (Kevin Michael album), 2011 * ''International'' (New Order album), 2002 * ''International'' (The T ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Atabekian, Alexander 1869 births 1933 deaths 19th-century Armenian writers 19th-century publishers (people) 20th-century Armenian writers 20th-century publishers (people) Anarchists from the Russian Empire Anarcho-communists Armenian anarchists Armenian communists Armenian emigrants to Bulgaria Armenian emigrants to France Armenian emigrants to Iran Armenian emigrants to Russia Armenian emigrants to Switzerland Armenian male writers Armenian people from the Russian Empire Armenian people of World War I Armenian physicians Armenian political philosophers Armenian printers Armenian prisoners and detainees Armenian revolutionaries Armenian Revolutionary Federation politicians Combat medics Cooperative organizers Cooperative theorists Prisoners and detainees of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Russian military personnel of World War I Social Democrat Hunchakian Party politicians Soviet anarchists Soviet Armenians University of Geneva alumni Witnesses of the Armenian genocide Writers from Shusha Writers from the Russian Empire