''Akelarre'' is a

Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...

term meaning Witches' Sabbath (a gathering of those practicing witchcraft). ''Akerra'' means male goat in the Basque language. Witches' sabbaths were envisioned as presided over by a goat. The word has been loaned to

Castilian Spanish In English, Castilian Spanish can mean the variety of Peninsular Spanish spoken in northern and central Spain, the standard form of Spanish, or Spanish from Spain in general. In Spanish, the term (Castilian) can either refer to the Spanish langu ...

(which uses the spelling ''Aquelarre''). It has been used in Castilian Spanish since the Basque witch trials of the 17th century. The word is most famous as the title of the witchcraft painting by

Francisco Goya Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (; ; 30 March 1746 – 16 April 1828) was a Spanish Romanticism, romantic painter and Printmaking, printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Hi ...

in the

Museo del Prado The Museo del Prado ( ; ), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It houses collections of Art of Europe, European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th ce ...

, which depicts witches in the company of a huge male goat.

Etymology

The most common

etymology Etymology ( ) is the study of the origin and evolution of words—including their constituent units of sound and meaning—across time. In the 21st century a subfield within linguistics, etymology has become a more rigorously scientific study. ...

proposed is that meaning

meadow A meadow ( ) is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as they maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable con ...

(''larre'') of the

male goat Male (symbol: ♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete (sex cell) known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilisation. A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to ...

(''aker'' "buck, billy goat"). The

Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition () was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile and lasted until 1834. It began toward the end of ...

accused people of worshipping a black goat, related to the worship of Satan. An alternative explanation could be that it originally was ''alkelarre'', ''alka'' being a local name for the

herb Herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal purposes, or for fragrances. Culinary use typically distingu ...

'' Dactylis hispanica''. In this case, the first etymology would have been a manipulation of the Inquisition, the fact being that the Basques did not know during the 1609-1612 persecution period or later what the "akelarre" referred to by the inquisitors meant. The word "aquelarre" is first attested in 1609 in a Spanish-language inquisitorial briefing, as synonym to ''junta diabólica'', meaning 'diabolic assembly'. Basque terms, transcribed into Spanish texts often by monolingual Spanish-language copyists, were fraught with mistakes. Nevertheless, the black he-Goat or ''Akerbeltz'' is known in

Basque mythology The mythology of the ancient Basques largely did not survive the arrival of Christianity in the Basque Country between the 4th and 12th century AD. Most of what is known about elements of this original belief system is based on the analysis o ...

to be an attribute of goddess Mari and is found in a Roman-age slab as a

votive A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...

dedication: ''Aherbelts Deo'' ("to the god Aherbelts") (see:

Aquitanian language The Aquitanian language was the language of the ancient Aquitani, a people living in Roman times between the Pyrenees, the Garonne river and the Atlantic Ocean. Epigraphic evidence for this language has also been found south of the Pyrenees, in ...

)..

Places called Akelarre

*Akelarre: a field of Mañaria (

Biscay Biscay ( ; ; ), is a province of the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the Bay of Biscay, eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilb ...

). *Akelarrenlezea: a large cave of

Zugarramurdi Zugarramurdi is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre in northern Spain. It passed into history as the setting of alleged occult activity featured in the infamous Basque witch trials held in Logroño ...

(

Navarre Navarre ( ; ; ), officially the Chartered Community of Navarre, is a landlocked foral autonomous community and province in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Autonomous Community, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and New Aquitaine in France. ...

). The witches met actually outside the cave in the place of Berroskoberro. Some say that the goat talked to its worshippers from a hole in the stone outside the cave. Inside the cave, the widest part measures 120 metres. The river of "hell" crosses along the centre of the cave. It has been eroding the floor of the cave for centuries, the ceiling of the cave is already 12 metres high. A limestone oven from the eighteenth century remains inside the biggest cave. Farmers found it useful to take more harvest out of the limestone oven. We can access another cave from the biggest cave: the cave of the Akelarre. The name of the cave derives from the meadow at the entrance of the cave. Akelarre used to be celebrated there. Further the river follows a deep gorge called "the cave of the witches". Other expressive names used for sabbat meeting places in Basque culture include: *''Eperlanda'': Partridges' field, in Muxika (

). *''Dantzaleku'': Dancing place, between Ataun and Idiazabal (

Gipuzkoa Gipuzkoa ( , ; ; ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the autonomous community of the Basque Country. Its capital city is Donostia-San Sebastián. Gipuzkoa shares borders with the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiqu ...

). *''Mandabiita'': in Ataun (Gipuzkoa). *''Sorginzulo'': Witches' hole, in

Zegama Zegama, popularly known as "the shadow of Aizkorri", is a town and municipality in the Goierri region of the province of Gipuzkoa, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Country, northern Spain. Nature an ...

and another one in Ataun, (both in Gipuzkoa). *''Bekatu-larre'': Sinful meadow, in Ziordia (

). *''Sorgintxulo'': Witches' hole, a cave in Hernani (Gipuzkoa). *''Atsegin Soro'': Pleasure orchard. This was the name by which witches themselves called the field of Matxarena in

Errenteria Errenteria (, ) is a town located in the province of Gipuzkoa in the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community, in the north of Spain, near the French border. The river Oiartzun (river), Oiartzun cuts its way through the ...

(Gipuzkoa), according to inquisitorial records. *''Basajaunberro'': Site of Basajaun (the wild man of the woods), in Auritz (Navarre). *''Sorginerreka'': Witches' creek, in Tolosa (Gipuzkoa). *''Edar Iturri'': Beautiful Spring, in Tolosa (Gipuzkoa). *''Sorginetxe'': Witches' house, in

Aia AIA or A.I.A. or Aia may refer to: Aia * Aia, a small town in the province of Gipuzkoa, Spain * Peñas de Aya, small mountain range in Oiartzun, Gipuzkoa * Aia, current Kutaisi, ancient capital of Colchis * Aia, another name for Aea (Malis), an ...

(Gipuzkoa). *''Akerlanda'': Goat's meadow, in Gautegiz Arteaga (Biscay). *''Anboto'': in

Durango Durango, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Durango, is one of the 31 states which make up the Political divisions of Mexico, 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, situated in the northwest portion of the country. With a population of 1,832,650 ...

(Biscay). *''Garaigorta'': in Orozko (Biscay). *''Petralanda'': in Dima (Biscay). *''Urkitza'': in Urizaharra ( Alava). *''Abadelaueta'': in Etxaguen (

Zigoitia Zigoitia (, ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality in the province of Álava, in the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Country, northern Spain. Its capital is the village of Ondategi. In 2013 the largest common grave from the ...

, Alava). *''Irantzi'', ''Puilegi'', ''Mairubaratza'': in

Oiartzun Oiartzun (, ) is a town and municipality located in the Basque Country, in the province of Gipuzkoa lying at the foot of the massif Aiako Harria (Peñas de Aya in Spanish). Etymology The name traces back to ''Oiasso'' or ''Oiarso'', a Roman to ...

(Gipuzkoa). * Larrun mountain: Witches from Bera (Navarre), Sara and Azkaine ( Lapurdi) gathered. * Jaizkibel mountain: in

Hondarribia Hondarribia (; ; ) is a Spanish town situated on the west shore of the Bidasoa river's estuary, in Gipuzkoa, in the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community. The border town is situated on a little promontory facing Hend ...

(Gipuzkoa). The inquisition heard they celebrated Akelarre near the church of Santa Barbara. Local sayings believe that there were Akelarres in the bridges of Mendelu, Santa Engrazi and Puntalea.

History

From the point of view of anthropology, akelarres would be the remains of pagan rites that were celebrated in clandestinity due to its banning by religious authorities at that time. Although some say the first Akelarres were held in

Classical Greece Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years (the 5th and 4th centuries BC) in ancient Greece,The "Classical Age" is "the modern designation of the period from about 500 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C." ( Thomas R. Mar ...

when women, naked and drunk, went up the mountain to celebrate parties without men, this identification is wrong, since they worshipped the God

Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, myth, Dionysus (; ) is the god of wine-making, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, festivity, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, and theatre. He was also known as Bacchus ( or ; ...

and they were not witches. Gossip about sorcerers' meetings spread in the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

. However, they probably referred to common women who had knowledge on properties of medicinal herbs. The herb ''

Atropa belladonna ''Atropa bella-donna'', commonly known as deadly nightshade or belladonna, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes and eggplant. It is native to Europe and Western Asia, i ...

'' has had an important meaning in the legend and symbology of the Akelarre. Hallucinogens were commonly used during the rite in order to achieve ecstasy. It was dangerous to calculate the right dose when the used quantities approached the lethal quantity, and that is why some substances started being applied as an ointment in the vagina or in the anus. This could have given rise to notions of a sexual element in witch practices and/or the use of cauldrons to prepare magic potions and salves. It is possible that the ointment was applied to the vagina with a staff and this might explain the frequent depiction of witches as flying with a broomstick between their legs. Some species of toad are poisonous if they come in contact with human skin. The toad's skin is also a hallucinogen, and they also appear in popular beliefs. The same could happen with poisonous mushrooms, such as

amanita muscaria ''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus ''Amanita''. It is a large white-lamella (mycology), gilled, white-spotted mushroom typically featuring a bright red cap covered with ...

Zugarramurdi witch-hunt

In 1610, the

tribunal of

Logroño Logroño ( , , ) is the capital of the autonomous community of La Rioja (Spain), La Rioja, Spain. Located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, primarily in the right (South) bank of the Ebro River, Logroño has historically been a place of pa ...

initiated a large witch-hunt in

and villages around Navarre that resulted in 300 people being accused of practising witchcraft. They took 40 of them to Logroño and burnt at the stake 12 supposed witches in Zugarramurdi (5 of them symbolically, as they had been killed by torture earlier). Julio Caro Baroja in his book ''The World of the Witches'' explains that Basque witchcraft is known due to this

witch-hunt A witch hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. Practicing evil spells or Incantation, incantations was proscribed and punishable in early human civilizations in the ...

, being one of the most infamous between the European witch-hunts. It was possibly as a result of these major trials that the term ''akelarre'' became synonymous with the word "witch's sabbath" and spread into common parlance in both Basque and Spanish. While previous study of the Zugarramurdi trials has focused on the mechanics of persecution, more recent analysis by

Emma Wilby Emma Wilby is a British historian and author specialising in the magic (paranormal), magical beliefs of Early Modern period, Early Modern Britain. Work An honorary fellow in history at the University of Exeter, England, and a Fellow of the Royal ...

has explored how the suspects themselves brought a wide range of belief and experience to their descriptions of the akelarre, from folk magical practices, communal medicine-making and confraternal meetings to popular expressions of Catholic religious ritual and theatre such as liturgical misrule and cursing masses.Wilby, Emma. ''Invoking the Akelarre: Voices of the Accused in the Basque Witch-Craze 1609-14''. Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2019.

Similar celebrations

Similar celebrations spread over the Pyrenees mountains in the Basque Country,

Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...

Catalonia Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationalities and regions of Spain, nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006, Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situate ...

and

Occitania Occitania is the historical region in Southern Europe where the Occitan language was historically spoken and where it is sometimes used as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasses much of the southern third of France (except ...

. Shepherds brought these beliefs on the way of their annual migration of sheep (

transhumance Transhumance is a type of pastoralism or Nomad, nomadism, a seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. In montane regions (''vertical transhumance''), it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and low ...

) from mountains to the flatlands. * "Ajunt de Bruixes", in

, the most famous of all being celebrated in Canigou mountain, origin of the storms that witches sent to the plain. * Turbon mountain, in

Huesca Huesca (; ) is a city in north-eastern Spain, within the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Aragon. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Aragon between 1096 and 1118. It is also the capital of the Spanish Huesca (province), ...

. * The mountains on top of the village Pals, in

Girona Girona (; ) is the capital city of the Province of Girona in the autonomous community of Catalonia, Spain, at the confluence of the Ter, Onyar, Galligants, and Güell rivers. The city had an official population of 106,476 in 2024, but the p ...

. *

Macizo de Anaga Anaga massif () is a mountain range in the northeastern part of the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The highest point is 1,024 m (Cruz de Taborno). It stretches from the Punta de Anaga in the northeast to Cruz del Carmen in the south ...

Tenerife Tenerife ( ; ; formerly spelled ''Teneriffe'') is the largest and most populous island of the Canary Islands, an Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Spain. With a land area of and a population of 965,575 inhabitants as of A ...

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...

. * Salamanca cave, in

Salamanca Salamanca () is a Municipality of Spain, municipality and city in Spain, capital of the Province of Salamanca, province of the same name, located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is located in the Campo Charro comarca, in the ...

References

Sources

*''Brujería en el País Vasco'', José Dueso, Orain S.A., 1996. *''Guía del Akelarre Vasco'', José Dueso, ROGER Ed., 2000. {{DEFAULTSORT:Akelarre (Witchcraft) Basque mythology Spanish mythology Witchcraft in Spain Witches' Sabbath