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Balinese Hinduism (; , ''Hindusmé Bali''), also known in Indonesia as ''Agama Hindu Dharma'', ''Agama Tirtha'', ''Agama Air Suci'' or ''Agama Hindu Bali'', is the form of
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
practised by the majority of the population of
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
.McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as ‘People of the Book’. The Journal of Hindu Studies, Oxford University Press, This is particularly associated with the
Balinese people The Balinese people (, ) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million (1.7% of Indonesia's population) live mostly on the island of Bali, making up 89% of the island's population ...
residing on the island, and represents a distinct form of Hindu worship incorporating local
animism Animism (from meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and in ...
,
ancestor worship The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
or ''
Pitru Paksha Pitri Paksha (, ), also spelt Pitru Paksha, is a 16-lunar day paksha, period in the Hindu calendar when Hindus Veneration of the dead, pay homage to their ancestors (Pitri), especially through food offerings. The period is also known as Pitarpas ...
'', and reverence for
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
saints or '' Bodhisattava''. The population of Indonesian islands is predominantly
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
(87%).Indonesia: Religions
Encyclopaedia Britannica
The island of Bali is an exception where about 87% of its people identify as Hindu (about 1.7% of the total Indonesian population). The 1945
Constitution of Indonesia The 1945 Constitution of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (, commonly abbreviated as ''UUD 1945'' or ''UUD '45'') is the supreme law and basis for all laws of Indonesia. The constitution was written in June–August 1945, in the ...
guarantees freedom of religion to all citizens. In 1952, states Michel Picard, an anthropologist and scholar of Balinese history and religion, the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs came under the control of conservatives who severely constrained an acceptable definition of a "religion". To be acceptable as an official Indonesian religion, the past ministry defined "religion" as one that is
monotheistic Monotheism is the belief that one God is the only, or at least the dominant deity.F. L. Cross, Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. A ...
, has codified religious law and added several requirements. Further, Indonesia denied rights of citizenship (such as the right to vote) to anyone not belonging to an officially recognized religion. As such, Balinese Hinduism has been formally recognized by the Indonesian government as one of the official religions practised in Bali.


History

Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century CE.Mark Juergensmeyer and Wade Clark Roof, 2012
Encyclopedia of Global Religion
Volume 1, pages 557–558
Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 CE. Stories from the ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
'' have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century, whose versions mirror those found in
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is the southernmost States and union territories of India, state of India. The List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of Indi ...
. Similarly, ancient '' Chandis'' (temples) excavated in Java and western Indonesian islands, as well as ancient inscriptions such as the 8th century Canggal inscription discovered in Indonesia, confirm the widespread adoption of
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
lingam iconography, his companion goddess
Parvati Parvati (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: Sanskrit phonology, /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the Devi, ...
,
Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
,
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
,
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
,
Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
, and other Hindu deities by about the middle to late 1st-millennium CE. Ancient Chinese records of Fa Hien on his return voyage from
Ceylon Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
to
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
in 414 CE mention two schools of Hinduism in Java, while Chinese documents from the 8th century refer to the Hindu kingdom of King Sanjaya as ''Holing'', calling it "exceedingly wealthy," and say that it coexisted peacefully with the Buddhist people and Sailendra ruler in the Kedu Plain of the Java island. Four diverse and contentious Islamic Sultanates emerged in north Sumatra (
Aceh Aceh ( , ; , Jawi script, Jawoë: ; Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, Old Spelling: ''Atjeh'') is the westernmost Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capit ...
), south Sumatra, west and central Java, and southern Borneo (
Kalimantan Kalimantan (; ) is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area, and consists of the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. The non-Ind ...
). The violence ended the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and communities in many of the islands of Indonesia. In other cases, Hindus and Buddhists left and concentrated as communities on islands that they could defend, and the sultans allowed them a safe haven on
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
island. Hindus of western Java moved east and then to the island of Bali and the neighbouring small islands, thus starting Balinese Hinduism.James Fox, ''Indonesian Heritage: Religion and ritual, Volume 9 of Indonesian Heritage'', Editor: Timothy Auger; While this era of religious conflict and inter-Sultanate warfare was unfolding, and new power centres were attempting to consolidate regions under their control, European colonialism arrived. The Indonesian archipelago was soon dominated by the
Dutch colonial empire The Dutch colonial empire () comprised overseas territories and trading posts under some form of Dutch control from the early 17th to late 20th centuries, including those initially administered by Dutch chartered companies—primarily the Du ...
. The Dutch colonial empire helped prevent inter-religious conflict, and it slowly began the process of excavating, understanding and preserving Indonesia's ancient Hindu-Buddhist cultural foundations, particularly in Java and the western islands of Indonesia.Jean Gelman Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples and Histories, Yale University Press; , pp. 21-83 and 142-173 Upon independence from Dutch colonial rule, Article 29 of the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia guaranteed freedom of religion to all its citizens. In 1952, states Michel Picard, the Indonesian Ministry of Religion came under the control of Islamists who severely constrained the acceptable definition of a "religion". To be acceptable as an official Indonesian religion, the ministry defined "religion" as one that is monotheistic, has codified religious law, possesses a prophet and a Holy Book, amongst other requirements. Balinese Hindus were declared as "people without a religion", and available to be converted. Balinese Hindus disagreed, debated, adapted, and declared their form of Hinduism to be monotheistic, and presented it in a form to be eligible for the status of "agama" under the 1952 amended articles. To accomplish this, the Balinese Hindus initiated a series of student and cultural exchange initiatives between Bali and India to help formulate the core principles behind Balinese Hinduism ( Catur Veda,
Upanishad The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...
, ,
Itihasa In Hinduism, Itihasa-Purana, also called the fifth Veda, refers to the traditional accounts of cosmogeny, myths, royal genealogies of the lunar dynasty and solar dynasty, and legendary past events, as narrated in the ''Itihasa'' (Mahabhara ...
). In particular, the political self-determination movement in Bali in the mid-1950s led to the joint petition of 1958 which demanded the Indonesian government recognize Hindu Dharma. This joint petition quoted the following Sanskrit mantra from the Hindu scriptures: The petition's focus on the "undivided one" was to satisfy the constitutional requirement that Indonesian citizens have a monotheistic belief in one God. The petitioners identified Ida Sanghyang Widhi Wasa as the undivided one. In the Balinese language, this term has two meanings: "the Divine ruler of the Universe" and "the Divine Absolute Cosmic Law". This creative phrase met the monotheistic requirement of the Indonesian Ministry of Religion in the former sense, while the latter sense of its meaning preserved the central ideas of
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
in ancient scripts of Hinduism.Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge; , pp. 9-12 Bali became the only part of Indonesia to remain predominantly Hindu.Jones (1971) p11Ricklefs (1989) p13


Key beliefs

Balinese Hinduism is an amalgamation of Hinduism with elements from Buddhism and pre-existing indigenous animist customs that permeated in the Indonesian archipelago before the arrival of Hinduism.Nigel Simmonds, Bali: Morning of the World, Periplus; , pp. 41-43 It integrates many of the core beliefs of Hinduism with the arts and rituals of the Balinese people. In contemporary times, Hinduism in Bali is officially referred to by the Indonesian Ministry of Religion as ''Agama Hindu Dharma'', but traditionally the religion was called by many names such as ''Tirta, Trimurti, Hindu, Agama Tirta, Siwa, Buda,'' and ''Siwa-Buda.''Michel Picard and Rémy Madinier, The Politics of Religion in Indonesia - Syncretism, Orthodoxy, and Religious Contention in Java and Bali, Routledge; , Chapter 5 and notes to the chapter. The terms ''Tirta'' and ''Trimurti'' emanate from Indian Hinduism, corresponding to Tirtha (pilgrimage to spirituality near holy waters) and Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) respectively. As in India, Hinduism in Bali grew with flexibility, featuring a diverse way of life. It includes many Indian spiritual ideas, cherishes the legends and beliefs of the Indian ''Puranas'' and Hindu Epics, and expresses its traditions through a unique set of festivals and customs associated with a myriad of ''hyangs'' - the local and ancestral spirits, as well as forms of animal sacrifice that are not common in India. The general beliefs and practices of ''Agama Hindu Dharma'' as practised in Bali are a mixture of ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of ''panca sila''. Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray.Shinji Yamashita (2002), Bali and Beyond: Explorations in the Anthropology of Tourism, Berghahn, , pp. 57-65 However, officially, the Indonesian government considers and advertises Indonesian Hinduism as a monotheistic religion with certain officially recognized beliefs that comply with its national ideology. Indonesian school textbooks describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam. Scholars contest whether these Indonesian government recognized and assigned beliefs reflect the traditional Balinese Hindu beliefs and practices from the time before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule. Some of the Hindu beliefs officially recognized by the Indonesian Ministry of Religion include: *A belief in one supreme being called "Ida Sanghyang Widi Wasa", "Sang
Hyang ''Hyang'' (Kawi language, Kawi, Sundanese language, Sundanese, Javanese language, Javanese, and Balinese language, Balinese) is a representation of the King of the gods, supreme being, in ancient Mythology of Indonesia, Java and Bali mythology. T ...
Tunggal", or " Sang Hyang Acintya". *A belief that all of the gods are manifestations of this supreme being. This belief is the same as the belief of
Smartism The ''Smarta'' tradition (, ) is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Uttara Mīmāṃsā, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Sm ...
, which also holds that the different forms of gods and goddesses,
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
, Siva,
Shakti Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refer ...
(Devi) are different aspects of the same Supreme Being. Shiva is also worshipped in other forms such as "Batara Guru" and "Maharaja Dewa" ( Mahadeva). The sacred texts found in ''Agama Hindu Dharma'' are the
Vedas FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
and
Upanishad The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...
s.Martin Ramstedt (2003), ''Hinduism in Modern Indonesia'', Routledge; , Chapter 1 They are the bases of Indian and Balinese Hinduism. Other sources of religious information include the Universal Hindu s and the
Itihasa In Hinduism, Itihasa-Purana, also called the fifth Veda, refers to the traditional accounts of cosmogeny, myths, royal genealogies of the lunar dynasty and solar dynasty, and legendary past events, as narrated in the ''Itihasa'' (Mahabhara ...
(mainly
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
and the
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
). The epics
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
and
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
became enduring traditions among Indonesian believers, expressed in shadow puppets (''
wayang ( , ) is a traditional form of puppet theatre play originating from the Indonesian island of Java. The term refers both to the show as a whole and the puppet in particular. Performances of wayang puppet theatre are accompanied by a ''gamel ...
'') and dance performances. As in India, Indonesian Hinduism recognizes four paths of spirituality, calling it ''Catur Marga''.Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), BALINESE ARTS AND CULTURE: A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra - JURNAL SENI BUDAYA, Indonesia; Volume 22, page 5-11 These are ''bhakti mārga'' (path of devotion to deities), ''jnana mārga'' (path of knowledge), ''karma mārga'' (path of works) and ''raja mārga'' (path of meditation). Bhakti Marga has the largest following in Bali. Similarly, like Hindus in India, Balinese Hindus believe that there are four proper goals of human life, calling it ''Catur Purusartha'' - ''
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
'' (the pursuit of moral and ethical living), ''
artha ''Artha'' (; ; Pali: Attha, Tamil: பொருள், poruḷ) is one of the four goals or objectives of human life in Hindu traditions.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
'' (the pursuit of wealth and creative activity), ''
kama ''Kama'' (Sanskrit: काम, ) is the concept of pleasure, enjoyment and desire in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It can also refer to "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsका ...
'' (the pursuit of joy and love) and ''
moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...
'' (the pursuit of self-knowledge and liberation).


God and deities

Balinese Hinduism includes the Indian trinity concept called
Trimurti The Trimurti ( /t̪ɾimʊɾt̪iː/) is the triple deity of supreme divinity in Hinduism, in which the cosmic functions of creation, preservation, and destruction are personified as a triad of deities. Typically, the designations are that ...
consisting of: *
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
*Wisnu or
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
*Çiwa or Siwa or
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
In Balinese Hindu texts, the alternate tripartite concept of Shiva of Indian
Shaivism Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...
is also found. This is usually referred in Balinese as "Siwa-Sadasiwa-Paramasiwa", where Shiva is the creator, the maintainer and the destroyer of cyclic existence. Along with the traditional Hindu trinity, Balinese Hindus worship a range of gods and goddesses (''
Hyang ''Hyang'' (Kawi language, Kawi, Sundanese language, Sundanese, Javanese language, Javanese, and Balinese language, Balinese) is a representation of the King of the gods, supreme being, in ancient Mythology of Indonesia, Java and Bali mythology. T ...
, Dewata'' and ''Batara-Batari''), as well as others that are unique and not found in Indian Hinduism.Haer et al (2000) p 46 Sang Hyang Widhi, which literally means "Divine Order", also known as
Acintya Achintya (from Sanskrit: अचिन्त्य, "the inconceivable", "the unimaginable"), also known as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa ( Balinese: "The Divine Order") and Sang Hyang Tunggal ("The Divine Oneness"), is the Supreme God of Indonesian Hin ...
("Inconceivable") or Sang Hyang Tunggal ("Divine Oneness"), is the concept in Balinese tradition of Hinduism that parallels the metaphysical concept of
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
among Indian Hindus. Ceremonies include an empty high-seated chair. It is also found at the top of the '' Padmasana''
shrine A shrine ( "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred space">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...: ''escri ...
outside houses and temples. This is for Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa.Eiseman (1989) p 274


Ethical values

The axiological ideas of Balinese Hinduism parallel those in Indian Hinduism. However, states Martin Ramstedt – a scholar of Hinduism in Southeast Asia, they are termed somewhat differently and passed on from one generation to the next as a community and at spiritual ceremonies. Unlike the Islamic schools in Indonesia and Hindu Ashrams in India, and in light of the official representation of Balinese Hinduism, the traditional precepts and values are acquired at home, rituals, and religious symbols. For example, the symbolism connected with the sprinkling of "''tirtha''", or holy water that bridges the material and the spiritual, this water is first sprinkled overhead and is understood as "purification of ''manah'' (mind)", then sipped to be understood as "purification of ''wak'' (speech)", and then sprinkled over the body symbolizing "purification of ''kaya'' (attitude and behaviour)". Thus, states Ngurah Nala, the younger generation becomes "acquainted with the ethical values embodied in the concept of ''Tri Kaya Parisudha'', or the attainment of a pure or good mind (''manacika''), pure or good speech (''wacika''), and pure conduct (''kayika'')".


Birth and life

There are a total of thirteen ceremonies concerned with life from conception until, but not including,
death Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose sh ...
, each of which has four elements: placation of evil spirits, purification with holy water, wafting of the essence, and prayer. These ceremonies mark major events in a person's life, including
birth Birth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring, also referred to in technical contexts as parturition. In mammals, the process is initiated by hormones which cause the muscular walls of the uterus to contract, expelling the f ...
,
puberty Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a female, the testicles i ...
, grain feeding, and
marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognised union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children (if any), and b ...
.Eiseman (1989) pp 362-63 A newborn baby is believed to represent the soul of an ancestor and is regarded as a god for the first 42 days of its life. However, the mother is regarded as impure and is not allowed to participate in any religious activities during this period. A baby must not touch the impure ground until it is 105 days old, halfway to the celebration of its first birthday according to the 210-day Balinese ''Pawukon'' calendar. Once it reaches its first birthday, the child's family will celebrate the Otonan birthday ceremony. Once the child reaches
puberty Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a female, the testicles i ...
, the six upper
canine teeth In mammalian oral anatomy, the canine teeth, also called cuspids, dogteeth, eye teeth, vampire teeth, or fangs, are the relatively long, pointed teeth. In the context of the upper jaw, they are also known as '' fangs''. They can appear more fl ...
are filed until they are even.Haer et al (2000) p 52Eiseman (1989) p. 91


Death and reincarnation

The most important ceremonies take place after death and result in the soul being freed to be eventually reincarnated. Unlike the death rites of other religions, the physical body is not the focus, as it is seen as nothing more than a temporary container of the soul and fit only for expedient disposal. In fact, the body must be burned before the soul can leave it completely. The cremation ceremony to bring this about can be extremely expensive because an elaborate ceremony is a way of showing respect for a soul destined to become a god with considerable powers over those left behind. Therefore, bodies are sometimes temporarily buried until the family can accumulate enough funds for cremation, although the bodies of priests or high-class families are preserved above ground.Haer et al (2000), p. 53Eiseman (1989) pp. 116–17


Festivals


Galungan and Kuningan

The most important festival is ''Galungan'' (related to Deepavali), a celebration of the triumph of ''
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
'' over ''
adharma Adharma is the Sanskrit antonym of dharma. It means "that which is not in accord with the dharma". Connotations include betrayal, discord, disharmony, unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, unrighteousness, wickedness, and vice. Descriptio ...
''. It is calculated according to the 210-day Balinese ''Pawukon'' calendar and takes place on the Wednesday (''Buda'') of the eleventh week (''Dunggulan''). According to tradition, the spirits of the dead descend from
Heaven Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...
, to return ten days later on ''Kuningan''.


Nyepi

''Nyepi'', or the Day of Silence, makes the start of the Balinese ''Saka'' year and is marked on the first day of the 10th month, ''Kedasa''. It usually falls in March.Eiseman (1989) pp 186–187


Other festivals

''Watugunung'', the last day of the '' Pawukon calendar'', is devoted to
Saraswati Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal Devi, goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the godde ...
, goddess of learning. Although it is devoted to books, reading is not allowed. The fourth day of the year is called ''Pagerwesi'', meaning "iron fence". It commemorates a battle between good and evil.Eiseman (1989) pp 184–185


Varna system

Balinese caste structure has been described in early 20th-century European literature to be based on three categories – ''triwangsa'' (three classes) or the nobility, ''dwijati'' (twice-born) in contrast to ekajati (once born) the common folks. Four statuses were identified in these sociological studies, spelled a bit differently from the caste categories for India: * ''Brahmanas'' – priest * ''Satrias'' – knighthood * ''Wesias'' – commerce * ''Sudras'' – servitude The ''Brahmana'' caste was further subdivided by these Dutch ethnographers into two: ''Siwa'' and ''Buda''. The ''Siwa'' caste was subdivided into five – ''Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba,'' and ''Petapan.'' This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste ''Brahmana'' men with lower caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to caste system studies in British colonies such as India.


Processions and colors

Bali has a caste system similar to the Indian system in its ancient form. In ancient India, caste was called '' varna'', meaning the colouring of the neutral or transparent soul or the propensity of the soul to behave according to certain tendencies based on its innate nature. Based on this propensity people selected their profession. Later this process through erosion became a family lineage/birth-based system. This same system has been adopted in Bali and it is called ' ''Wangsa''' which is related to the professions of the ancestors. However, even in Bali today, irrespective of the profession of the individual, they claim to belong to their family wangsa. There are four basic wangsa or professions, known collectively as ''caturwangsa''—all Balinese belong to this group. The top three wangsa are ''Brahmana'', ''Satria'' (or ''Ksatriya'') and ''Wesia'' (or ''Wesya''), represent nobility, and are known as ''triwangsa''. The fourth and most common wangsa is ''Sudra''. These wangsa groups are subdivided, and each has certain names associated with it. The teachers and priests, ''Brahmanans'', have five subdivisions, and are said to be descended from one individual. Men and women have Ida as their first name. The ''Ksatriya'' are traditional rulers and warriors. Typical names of this wangsa are ''" Dewa Agung"'', "''Anak Agung"'' and ''"I Dewa"''. The ''Wesia'' are considered to have been merchants of different kinds. The most common wangsa in Bali in terms of numbers is ''Sudra'' since 90% of Balinese Hindus belong to it; they make up the common people as farmers and others. The ''Pandes'' or Blacksmiths have a special 'clan' that is not mentioned in the Catur Wangsa group but is considered especially important for its skilled works and being the smiths of fire, ''Dewa''
Agni Agni ( ) is the Deva (Hinduism), Hindu god of fire. As the Guardians of the directions#Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions"), guardian deity of the southeast direction, he is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. ...
or ''Dewa''
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
.


Dietary law

Under no circumstances may Balinese Hindus consume the flesh of human, cat, monkey, dog, crocodile, mouse, snake, frog, certain poisonous fish, leech, stinging insect, crow, eagle, owl, or any other
bird of prey Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as (although not the same as) raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively predation, hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and smaller birds). In addition to speed ...
. Chicken, fruit, vegetables and seafood are widely consumed. Hindus, especially those who belong to the varna (caste) of ''
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
'' and ''
Kshatriya Kshatriya () (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority"; also called Rajanya) is one of the four varnas (social orders) of Hindu society and is associated with the warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
'', are forbidden to consume or even touch beef and rarely touch pork; additionally, they must not eat on the street or marketplace, drink alcohol, or taste offerings of such items.


Outside Bali and Indonesia

Balinese Hindus built Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta, the second largest temple in Indonesia after Pura Besakih in Bali, dedicated to Hindu Sundanese King Sri Baduga Maharaja Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata Prabu Siliwangi. Pura Aditya Jaya is the largest temple in Indonesian capital
Jakarta Jakarta (; , Betawi language, Betawi: ''Jakartè''), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (; ''DKI Jakarta'') and formerly known as Batavia, Dutch East Indies, Batavia until 1949, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and ...
. At least four Balinese Hindu temples exist in
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
. A padmasana exists in
Hamburg Hamburg (, ; ), officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg,. is the List of cities in Germany by population, second-largest city in Germany after Berlin and List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 7th-lar ...
,
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
in front of the Museum of Ethnology, Hamburg. Pura Girinatha in
Dili Dili (Portuguese language, Portuguese and Tetum language, Tetum: ''Díli'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Timor-Leste. It lies on the northern coast of the island of Timor, in a small area of flat land hemmed in by mountai ...
,
Timor Leste Timor-Leste, also known as East Timor, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the coastal exclave of Oecusse in the island's northwest, and ...
, was built by Indonesian immigrants. The recently constructed Pura Tri Hita Karana is located in Erholungspark Marzahn park in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
,
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. Two temples exist in the Pairi Daiza botanical garden in Belgium.


See also

*
Candi of Indonesia A candi (, ) is a Hindu temple, Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the ''Zaman Hindu-Buddha'' or "Indianized kingdom, Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th centuries. The ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia'' ...
*
Hinduism in Indonesia Hinduism is the third-largest religion in Indonesia, based on civil registration data in 2023 from Ministry of Home Affairs, is practised by about 1.68% of the total population, and almost 87% of the population in Bali. Hinduism was the dom ...
*
Hinduism in Java Hinduism has historically been a major religious and cultural influence in Java, Indonesia. Hinduism was the dominant religion in the region before the arrival of Islam. In recent years, it has also been enjoying something of a resurgence, parti ...
*
Hinduism in Southeast Asia Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from the Indian subcontinent, people of Southeast Asia entered the historical period by producing th ...
* Hinduism in Timor-Leste *
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism was the tradition of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesia, Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra as well ...
*
Indosphere Indosphere is a term used for areas of Indian subcontinent, Indian linguistic influence in the neighboring Southern Asian, Southeast Asian, and East Asian regions. It is commonly used in areal linguistics in contrast with the Sinophone languages ...
* Javanese Kshatriya * ''
Kakawin Sutasoma ''Kakawin Sutasoma'' is an Old Javanese poem in poetic meters (''kakawin'' or '' kavya''). It is the source of the motto of Indonesia, ''Bhinneka Tunggal Ika'', which is usually translated as ''Unity in Diversity'', although it means '(Alt ...
'' * Kejawèn *
Sunda Wiwitan Sunda Wiwitan (from Sundanese: ) is a folk religion followed by some of the Sundanese people (including Baduy & Bantenese) in Indonesia. The followers of this belief system can be found in some villages in western Java, such as Kanekes, L ...


References


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{cite book , title = The journey of the Goddess Durga: India, Java, and Bali , last = Ariati , first = Ni Wayan Pasek , year = 2016 , isbn = 9788177421521 , publisher = Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi Hinduism in Bali