Aeshma (Avestan: 𐬀𐬉𐬴𐬨𐬀 ''aēṣ̌ma''; Old Avestan: 𐬀𐬉𐬱𐬆𐬨𐬀 ''aēšəma'') is the
Younger Avestan
Avestan ( ) is the liturgical language of Zoroastrianism. It belongs to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family and was originally spoken during the Old Iranian period ( – 400 BCE) by the Iranians living in the eastern por ...
name of
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religions, Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zoroaster, Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, ...
's demon of "wrath". As a hypostatic entity, Aeshma is variously interpreted as "wrath", "rage", and "fury". His standard epithet is "of the bloody mace".
Tri-syllabic ''aeshma'' is already attested in Gathic Avestan as ''aēšəma'', though not yet—at that early stage—as an entity. The word has an Indo-Iranian root, descendant of the
Proto-Indo-European root
The roots of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) are basic parts of words to carry a lexical meaning, so-called morphemes. PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like "to eat" or "to run". Roots never occurred alone in the langu ...
''*h₁eish₂-'' ‘strengthen; propel’, making it cognate with
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
''oîma'' (οἶμα) ‘spring, rush’,
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
'' īra'' ‘wrath’, and Lithuanian ''aistrà'' ‘violent passion’. In the Zoroastrian texts of the 9th–12th centuries, ''aeshma'' appears as
Middle Persian
Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg ( Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasania ...
''eshm'' 𐭠𐭩𐭱𐭬 or 𐭧𐭩𐭱𐭬 ''kheshm'', continuing in
Pazend
Pazend () or Pazand (; ) is one of the writing systems used for the Middle Persian language. It was based on the Avestan alphabet, a phonetic alphabet originally used to write Avestan, the language of the Avesta, the primary sacred texts of Zoroa ...
and
New Persian
New Persian (), also known as Modern Persian () is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into three stages: Early New Persian (8th ...
as ''xašm''. Judaism's
Asmodeus
Asmodeus (; , ''Asmodaios'') or Ashmedai (; ; ; see below for other variations) is a king of demons in the legends of Solomon and the constructing of Solomon's Temple."Asmodeus" in '' The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia B ...
( ''ʼšmdʼy'') may derive from Avestan ''aeshma.
daeva
A daeva (Avestan: 𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬎𐬎𐬀 ''daēuua'') is a Zoroastrian supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristics. In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon, the ''daeva''s are " gods that are (to be) rejected". T ...
''.. The
Georgian language
Georgian (, ) is the most widely spoken Kartvelian language, Kartvelian language family. It is the official language of Georgia (country), Georgia and the native or primary language of 88% of its population. It also serves as the literary langu ...
word for devil—''eshmaki''—likewise derives from ''aeshma''.
In scripture
In the hierarchy of Zoroastrian demons (''daeva''s) that mirrors a similar hierarchy of divinities, Aeshma is opposed to
Asha Vahishta
''Asha'' () or ''arta'' (; ) is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right' (or 'righteousness'), 'order' and 'right work ...
, the
Amesha Spenta
In Zoroastrianism, the Amesha Spenta (—literally "Immortal (which is) holy/bounteous/furthering") are a class of seven divine entities emanating from Ahura Mazda, the highest divinity of the religion. Later Middle Persian variations of the ter ...
that is the hypostasis of "Truth". This opposition also reflects Aeshma's position as messenger of
Angra Mainyu
Angra Mainyu (; ) is the Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's hypostasis of the "destructive/evil spirit" and the main adversary in Zoroastrianism either of the Spenta Mainyu, the "holy/creative spirits/mentality", or directly of Ahura Mazda, th ...
(''
Yasht
A Yasht (, ) is a hymn of praise composed in the Young Avestan language and dedicated to specific Zoroastrian divinities. The term commonly applies to the collection of 21 Yashts, although it may also refer to other texts within the wider Avest ...
'' 19.46), for in the hierarchy of divinities, Asha is the messenger of ''Spenta Mainyu'', the instrument through which Ahura Mazda has realized ("created by His thought") creation.
The demon's chief adversary, however, is
Sraosha
Sraosha ( or ; ), is the Avestan name of the Zoroastrian '' yazata'' of "Conscience" and "Observance", which is also the literal meaning of his name.
In the Middle Persian commentaries of the 9th-12th centuries, the divinity appears as '', S(a) ...
"Obedience", the principle of religious devotion and discipline. The opposition between religious obedience and distraction from it is also expressed in the Yasna 10.8's portrayal of Aeshma as the metaphysical endangerment of the Good Religion. Aeshma distracts from proper worship, distorting "the intention and meaning of sacrifice through brutality against cattle and violence in war and drunkenness.". (''Yasna'' 10.8, ''Yasht'' 17.5)
According to ''Yasht'' 11.15,
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda (; ; or , ),The former is the New Persian rendering of the Avestan form, while the latter derives from Middle Persian. also known as Horomazes (),, is the only creator deity and Sky deity, god of the sky in the ancient Iranian ...
created Sraosha to counter the demon's mischief, and in ''Yasna'' 57.25, Sraosha protects the faithful from the fiend's assault. At the renovation of the world, Sraosha overthrows Aeshma, who will flee before the '' saoshyant'' (''Yasht'' 19.95), but in the present the fiend flees before
Mithra
Mithra ( ; ) is an ancient Iranian deity ('' yazata'') of covenants, light, oaths, justice, the Sun, contracts, and friendship. In addition to being the divinity of contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing protector of Truth ( ...
(''Yasna'' 57.10; ''Yasht'' 10.97).
The demon's opposition to Sraosha is also reflected in their respective standard epithets. While Aeshma's is ''xrvi.dru-'' "of the bloody mace" (e.g. ''Yasna'' 10.8, ''Yasht'' 11.15), Sraosha's is ''darshi.dru-'' "of the strong ( Ahuric) mace." Aeshma's other epithet's include "ill-fated" (''Yasht'' 10.95) "malignant" (''
Vendidad
The Vendidad /ˈvendi'dæd/, also known as Videvdat, Videvdad or Juddēvdād, is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. However, unlike the other texts of the Avesta, the ''Vendidad'' is an ecclesiastical code, not a ...
'' 11.9)
In tradition and folklore
In the Zoroastrian texts of the 9th–12th centuries, the function of battling Aeshma is also ascribed to Mithra ('' Zand-i Wahman yasn'' 7.34), and Denkard 3.116 places him in opposition to
Vohu Manah
Vohu Manah (Avestan: 𐬬𐬊𐬵𐬎⸱𐬨𐬀𐬥𐬀𐬵 ''vohu manah'') is the Avestan language term for a Zoroastrian concept, generally translated as "Good Purpose", "Good Mind", or "Good Thought", referring to the good state of mind th ...
. The demon is made commander by Angra Mainyu (''Zatspram'' 34.32) and although he is closely related to Az, the demon of "avarice", Az will eventually swallow him up. The opposition to Sraosha is continued into the later tradition.
In the even later '' Rivayats'' (epistles), a ''Yasna'' ceremony that is not properly executed is said to have been done as if the ceremony were for Aeshma.