human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...

s and other

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Biology, biological Kingdom (biology), kingdom Animalia (). With few exceptions, animals heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, ...

s, the adrenocortical hormones are

hormone A hormone (from the Ancient Greek, Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of cell signaling, signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physio ...

s produced by the

adrenal cortex The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of the adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. I ...

, the outer region of the

adrenal gland The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer adrenal corte ...

. These polycyclic

steroid hormone A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes: corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence ''cortico-'') and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta). Wit ...

s have a variety of roles that are crucial for the body's response to stress (for example, the

fight-or-flight response The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-freeze-or-fawn (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first describ ...

), and they also regulate other functions in the body. Threats to

homeostasis In biology, homeostasis (British English, British also homoeostasis; ) is the state of steady internal physics, physical and chemistry, chemical conditions maintained by organism, living systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning fo ...

, such as

injury Injury is physiological damage to the living tissue of any organism, whether in humans, in other animals, or in plants. Injuries can be caused in many ways, including mechanically with penetration by sharp objects such as teeth or with ...

chemical imbalance The biology of depression is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Scientific studies have found that different brain areas show altered activity in ...

infection An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...

, or

psychological stress In psychology, stress is a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a form of psychological and mental discomfort. Small amounts of stress may be beneficial, as it can improve athletic performance, motivation and reaction to the envi ...

, can initiate a stress response. Examples of adrenocortical hormones that are involved in the stress response are

aldosterone Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid steroid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland. It is essential for sodium conservation in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands, and colon. It plays ...

and

cortisol Cortisol is a steroid hormone in the glucocorticoid class of hormones and a stress hormone. When used as medication, it is known as hydrocortisone. Cortisol is produced in many animals, mainly by the ''zona fasciculata'' of the adrenal corte ...

. These hormones also function in regulating the conservation of water by the

kidney In humans, the kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped blood-filtering organ (anatomy), organs that are a multilobar, multipapillary form of mammalian kidneys, usually without signs of external lobulation. They are located on the left and rig ...

s and

glucose metabolism Glucose is a sugar with the molecular formula , which is often abbreviated as Glc. It is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. It is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and ...

, respectively.Genest, J., Biron, P., Koiw, E., Nowaczynski, W., Chretien, M., & Boucher, R. (1961). Adrenocortical hormones in human hypertension and their relation to angiotensin. Circulation Research, 9, 775-791.

Classes

Adrenocortical hormones are divided into three classes by function:

mineralocorticoids Mineralocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which in turn are a class of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids are produced in the adrenal cortex and influence salt and water balances (electrolyte balance and fluid balance). The primary mi ...

glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids (or, less commonly, glucocorticosteroids) are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids are corticosteroids that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor that is present in almost every vertebra ...

, and

androgens An androgen (from Greek ''andr-'', the stem of the word meaning ) is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This includes ...

. #

Mineralocorticoid Mineralocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which in turn are a class of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids are produced in the adrenal cortex and influence salt and water balances (electrolyte balance and fluid balance). The primary ...

hormones are synthesized in the outermost layer of the

known as the

zona glomerulosa The ''zona glomerulosa'' (sometimes, glomerular zone) of the adrenal gland is the most superficial layer of the adrenal cortex, lying directly beneath the renal capsule. Its cells are ovoid and arranged in clusters or arches (''glomus'' is Latin ...

.Shier, D., Butler, J., Lewis, R. “Adrenal Glands.” Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. 504-508. Their function is to regulate the concentration of electrolytes circulating in the blood. For example,

functions to raise blood sodium levels and lower blood potassium levels by targeting the kidneys. Specifically, it binds receptors of cells that comprise the

distal tubules The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting tubule. Physiology It is partly responsible for the regulation of potassium, sodium, calcium, and pH. On its apical surface (lu ...

of the kidneys which then stimulate

ion channels Ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel pore. Their functions include establishing a resting membrane potential, shaping action potentials and other electrical signals by gating the flow of ...

to conserve sodium and excrete potassium. onnell, J. M. C., & Davies, E. (2005). The new biology of aldosterone. Journal of Endocrinology, 186, 1-20./ref> Additionally, the ion gradient initiates conservation of water. # The

glucocorticoid Glucocorticoids (or, less commonly, glucocorticosteroids) are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids are corticosteroids that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor that is present in almost every vertebra ...

family of hormones is synthesized in the middle layer of the

known as the

zona fasciculata The ''zona fasciculata'' (sometimes, fascicular or fasciculate zone) constitutes the middle and also the widest zone of the adrenal cortex, sitting directly beneath the ''zona glomerulosa''. Constituent cells are organized into bundles or "fasc ...

. These hormones regulate the processing of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates by the human body. They also play a role in maintaining a normal stress response cycle. #

Androgens An androgen (from Greek ''andr-'', the stem of the word meaning ) is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This includes ...

, or

sex hormones Sex hormones, also known as sex steroids, gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate steroid hormone receptors. The sex hormones include the androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Their effects a ...

, are synthesized in the innermost layer of the

known as the

zona reticularis The zona reticularis (sometimes, reticulate zone) is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, lying deep to the zona fasciculata and superficial to the adrenal medulla. The cells are arranged cords that project in different directions giving a n ...

. These hormones, such as

estrogen Estrogen (also spelled oestrogen in British English; see spelling differences) is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three ...

in females and

testosterone Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and androgen in Male, males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of Male reproductive system, male reproductive tissues such as testicles and prostate, as well as promoting se ...

in males, are commonly known for promoting sexual characteristics and the maturation of reproductive organs of the respective gender.

Structure

Adrenocortical hormones are considered

steroid hormones A steroid hormone is a steroid that acts as a hormone. Steroid hormones can be grouped into two classes: corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence ''cortico-'') and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta). Withi ...

because of the shared characteristic of a

cholesterol Cholesterol is the principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body Tissue (biology), tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in Animal fat, animal fats and oils. Cholesterol is biosynthesis, biosynthesized by all anima ...

backbone. The structures of different steroids differ by the types and locations of additional atoms on a

backbone.Nelson, D. L., Lehninger, A. L., and Cox, M. M. “Hormones are Chemically Diverse.” Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 6th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 2013. 908. The

backbone consists of four

hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and Hydrophobe, hydrophobic; their odor is usually fain ...

rings, three

cyclohexane Cyclohexane is a cycloalkane with the molecular formula . Cyclohexane is non-polar. Cyclohexane is a colourless, flammable liquid with a distinctive detergent-like odor, reminiscent of cleaning products (in which it is sometimes used). Cyclohexan ...

rings and one

cyclopentane Cyclopentane (also called C pentane) is a highly flammable alicyclic compound, alicyclic hydrocarbon with chemical formula C5H10, C5H10 and CAS number 287-92-3, consisting of a ring of five carbon atoms each bonded with two hydrogen atoms above and ...

, that contribute to its insolubility in aqueous environments. However, the

hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the chemical property of a molecule (called a hydrophobe) that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water. In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thu ...

nature allows them to readily diffuse through the

plasma membrane The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment (the extr ...

of cells. This is important to the function of

as they rely on cellular response pathways to restore the

homeostatic In biology, homeostasis (British also homoeostasis; ) is the state of steady internal physical and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, su ...

imbalance that initiated the hormone release.

Synthesis

The synthesis of adrenocortical

involves a chain of

oxidation-reduction Redox ( , , reduction–oxidation or oxidation–reduction) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of the reactants change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is ...

reactions catalyzed by a series of enzymes. Synthesis begins with a molecule of

. Through shared intermediates and pathways branching off those shared intermediates, the different classes of steroids are synthesized. Steroids are synthesized from

in their respective regions of the

. The process is controlled by

steroidogenic acute regulatory protein The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, commonly referred to as StAR (STARD1), is a transport protein that regulates cholesterol transfer within the mitochondria, which is the rate-limiting step in the production of steroid hormones. It is ...

(StAR) which sits in the

mitochondrial A mitochondrion () is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi. Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is used ...

membrane and regulates the passage of

. This is the rate-limiting step of

steroid biosynthesis A steroid is an organic compound with four fused compound, fused rings (designated A, B, C, and D) arranged in a specific molecular configuration. Steroids have two principal biological functions: as important components of cell membranes t ...

. Once StAR has transported

into the

mitochondria A mitochondrion () is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi. Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is us ...

, the

molecule undergoes a string of

reactions catalyzed by a series of enzymes from the family of

cytochrome P450 Cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs) are a Protein superfamily, superfamily of enzymes containing heme as a cofactor (biochemistry), cofactor that mostly, but not exclusively, function as monooxygenases. However, they are not omnipresent; for examp ...

enzymes. A

coenzyme A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound or Metal ions in aqueous solution, metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's role as a catalysis, catalyst (a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction). Cofactors can ...

system called

adrenodoxin reductase Adrenodoxin reductase (Enzyme Nomenclature name: adrenodoxin-NADP+ reductase, EC 1.18.1.6), was first isolated from bovine adrenal cortex where it functions as the first enzyme in the mitochondrial P450 systems that catalyze essential steps in s ...

transfers electrons to the

P450 Cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs) are a superfamily of enzymes containing heme as a cofactor that mostly, but not exclusively, function as monooxygenases. However, they are not omnipresent; for example, they have not been found in ''Escherichi ...

enzyme which initiates the

reactions that transform

into the

.Sushko, T. A., Gilep, A. A., & Usanov, S. A. (2012) Mechanism of intermolecular interactions of microsomal cytochrome P450s CYP17 and CYP21 involved in steroid hormone biosynthesis. Biochemistry, 77(6), 585-592. Though synthesis is initiated inside

, precursors are shuttled to the

endoplasmic reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a part of a transportation system of the eukaryote, eukaryotic cell, and has many other important functions such as protein folding. The word endoplasmic means "within the cytoplasm", and reticulum is Latin for ...

for processing by enzymes present in the

. The precursors are shuttled back to the

in the region of the

within which synthesis initially began and it is there that synthesis is completed.Duarte, A., Poderoso, C., Cooke, M., Soria, G., Cornejo Maciel, F., et al. (2012). Mitochondrial fusion is essential for steroid biosynthesis. PLoS ONE, 7(9): e45829.

Pathology

Cushing's Syndrome

Cushing's syndrome Cushing's syndrome is a collection of signs and symptoms due to prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids such as cortisol. Signs and symptoms may include high blood pressure, abdominal obesity but with thin arms and legs, reddish stretch marks, ...

arises from the repeated

hypersecretion Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, such as a secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast, excretion is the removal of certain substances or waste products from a cell or organism. The classical mech ...

. It can be caused by either an

adrenal tumor An adrenal tumor or adrenal mass is any benign or malignant neoplasms of the adrenal gland, several of which are notable for their ability to overproduce endocrine hormones. Adrenal cancer is the presence of malignant adrenal tumors, which include ...

or by

adrenocorticotropic hormone Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important ...

(ACTH) from the

anterior pituitary gland The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is a major organ of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) makes up ...

. It is predominantly due to an excess of the

. Secretion is typically regulated by the

hypothalamus The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...

which secretes

corticotropin-releasing hormone Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) (also known as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) or corticoliberin; corticotropin may also be spelled corticotrophin) is a peptide hormone involved in stress responses. It is a releasing hormone that b ...

(CRH) to the

pituitary gland The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, the pituitary gland is located at the base of the human brain, brain, protruding off the bottom of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus contr ...

, stimulating the

pituitary The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, the pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, protruding off the bottom of the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus control much of th ...

to secrete

(ACTH).

ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important ...

then travels to the

adrenal glands The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which ...

and induces the release of

into the bloodstream.Porterfield, J. R., Thompson, G. B., Young, W. F., et al. (2008). Surgery for cushing’s syndrome: An historical review and recent ten-year experience. World J. Surg., 32, 659-677. In

, this process occurs in excess. Some symptoms of an individual with

include low tissue protein levels, due to muscle and bone atrophy, and high blood glucose levels. Sodium levels also see an increase which results in fluid retention in tissues and elevated blood pressure. In addition to

, excess

are secreted.Low, G., & Sahi, K. (2012). Clinical and imaging overview of functional adrenal neoplasms. International Journal of Urology, 19, 697-708. In females, increased secretion of

, such as

, results in

masculinization Virilization or masculinization is the biological development of adult male characteristics in young males or females. Most of the changes of virilization are produced by androgens. Virilization is a medical term commonly used in three medical a ...

which may present as facial hair growth and a deepened voice. Treatment for

aims to reduce the high levels of

circulating through the human body. The course of action ultimately depends on the cause of the

. Cushing's can be induced by repeated synthetic steroid use to treat

inflammatory diseases Inflammation (from ) is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or Irritation, irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and Functio laesa, loss of funct ...

, or it can also be caused by a tumor in the

. In either case, treatment may rely on removal of the tumor or of the

. Without the

, the human body is unable to supply the hormones it produces and therefore requires

hormone replacement therapy Hormone replacement therapy (HRT), also known as menopausal hormone therapy or postmenopausal hormone therapy, is a form of hormone therapy used to treat symptoms associated with female menopause. Effects of menopause can include symptoms such ...

Addison's Disease

Addison's disease Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency, is a rare long-term endocrine disorder characterized by inadequate production of the steroid hormones cortisol and aldosterone by the two outer layers of the cells of the adr ...

is an

autoimmune disorder An autoimmune disease is a condition that results from an anomalous response of the adaptive immune system, wherein it mistakenly targets and attacks healthy, functioning parts of the body as if they were foreign organisms. It is estimated tha ...

that affects the

such that it is unable to efficiently secrete hormones. The immune system specifically targets the cells of the

and destroys them, but

can also be caused by a severe infection such as

tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...

. Some symptoms include

hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia (American English), also spelled hypoglycaemia or hypoglycæmia (British English), sometimes called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's tria ...

and decreased blood sodium levels and increased blood potassium levels caused by a deficiency of

. These electrolyte imbalances induce nerve and muscle issues. Other symptoms include fatigue, salt cravings, weight loss, and increased

skin pigmentation Human skin color ranges from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. Differences in skin color among individuals is caused by variation in pigmentation, which is largely the result of genetics (inherited from one's biological parents), and in ...

. Increased

is caused by a deficiency of the adrenocortical hormone

hydrocortisone Hydrocortisone is the name for the hormone cortisol when supplied as a medication. It is a corticosteroid and works as an anti-inflammatory and by immune suppression. Uses include conditions such as adrenocortical insufficiency, adrenogenit ...

. Its normal behavior would be as

negative feedback Negative feedback (or balancing feedback) occurs when some function (Mathematics), function of the output of a system, process, or mechanism is feedback, fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output, whether caused ...

at the

, stimulating the

to decrease secretion of

corticotropin Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important c ...

. Because

is not able to be produced in

, the

continues to secrete

which binds to the receptor for

melanocyte-stimulating hormone The melanocyte-stimulating hormones, known collectively as MSH, also known as melanotropins or intermedins, are a family of peptide hormones and neuropeptides consisting of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-melanocyte-stimulating ...

. It then causes

melanocytes Melanocytes are melanin-producing neural crest-derived cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale) of the skin's epidermis, the middle layer of the eye (the uvea), the inner ear, vaginal epithelium, meninges, bones, and hea ...

to produce more pigment, thus darkening the skin tone.Winqvist, O., Rorsman, F., & Kampe, O. (2000). Autoimmune adrenal insufficiency. BioDrugs, 13(2), 107-114. The standard treatment for

for the

and

that are no longer able to be synthesized. 2Former U.S. President

John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the first Roman Catholic and youngest person elected p ...

is a well-known individual who suffered from

throughout his presidency. Due to the availability of

, he and his staff were able to cover up his condition.

Stress and immunity

Recent studies have discovered a pathway that links stress to the onset of disease through the activation of certain genes.Cole, J.T., Mitala, C. M., Kundu, S., Verma, A., Elkind, J.A., Nissim, I., & Cohen, A.S. (2010). Dietary branched chain amino acids ameliorate injury-induced cognitive impairment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 366-371. The experience of psychological stress activates

transcription factors In molecular biology, a transcription factor (TF) (or sequence-specific DNA-binding factor) is a protein that controls the rate of transcription of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA, by binding to a specific DNA sequence. The fun ...

that activate genes. In a study by Cole et al., it was concluded that

GABA GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid, γ-aminobutyric acid) is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the developmentally mature mammalian central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. GA ...

-1 transcription factor activates the

interleukin Interleukins (ILs) are a group of cytokines (secreted proteins and signal molecules) that are expressed and secreted by white blood cells (leukocytes) as well as some other body cells. The human genome encodes more than 50 interleukins and related ...

-6-gene. This gene codes for a protein that activates the inflammatory response which directs an

immune response An immune response is a physiological reaction which occurs within an organism in the context of inflammation for the purpose of defending against exogenous factors. These include a wide variety of different toxins, viruses, intra- and extracellula ...

to the site of the inflammation.

Chronic inflammation Chronic systemic inflammation is the result of release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from immune-related cells and the chronic activation of the innate immune system. It can contribute to the development or progression of certain conditions such ...

makes an individual more susceptible to diseases such as

cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...

heart disease Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease involving the heart or blood vessels. CVDs constitute a class of diseases that includes: coronary artery diseases (e.g. angina pectoris, angina, myocardial infarction, heart attack), heart failure, ...

, and

diabetes Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough of the hormone insulin, or the cells of th ...

. Another study found that physical stress caused increased

: DHEAS (dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate) molar ratios which may contribute to reduced immunity, especially in the elderly for whom

: DHEAS ratios are already increased. This is because DHEAS levels decrease with age while

levels do not. This high ratio was found to suppress the activity of

neutrophils Neutrophils are a type of phagocytic white blood cell and part of innate immunity. More specifically, they form the most abundant type of granulocytes and make up 40% to 70% of all white blood cells in humans. Their functions vary in different ...

and raise susceptibility for

.Butcher, S. K., Killampalli, V., Lascelles, D., Wang, K., Alpar, E. K., & Lord, J. M. (2005). Raised cortisol:DHEAS ratios in the elderly after injury: potential impact upon neutrophil function and immunity. Aging Cell, 4, 319-324.

References

{{Authority control Hormones