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''Adelpha californica'', the California sister, is a
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of ...
of
butterfly Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises ...
in the
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Nymphalidae The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies, with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world. Belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea, they are usually medium-sized to large butterflies. Most species have a re ...
. They are common in
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the ...
, but can also be found in western
Nevada Nevada ( ; ) is a state in the Western region of the United States. It is bordered by Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. Nevada is the 7th-most extensive, ...
and
Oregon Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idah ...
, as well as in northern
Baja California Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
. The upper surfaces of their wings are dark brown to black with wide cream white bands dissecting both wings and two orange patches near the tips of the forewings. The underside is variously colored with browns, blue, orange, and white. ''A. californica'' is unpalatable to predators and is part of a large
mimicry complex In evolutionary biology, mimicry is an evolved resemblance between an organism and another object, often an organism of another species. Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry f ...
.


Taxonomy

''Adelpha californica'' is classified under the
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...
''
Adelpha ''Adelpha'' is a genus of brush-footed butterflies found from the southern United States and Mexico to South America. They are commonly known as sisters, due to the white markings on their wings, which resemble a nun's habit. This genus is so ...
'' (sisters) in the
tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to confl ...
Limenitidini of the subfamily
Limenitidinae The Limenitidinae are a subfamily of butterflies that includes the admirals and relatives. The common names of many species and genera reference military ranks or – namely the Adoliadini – titles of nobility (e.g., count, duke, earl ...
(admirals and relatives) of the brush-footed butterfly
family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...
Nymphalidae The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies, with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world. Belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea, they are usually medium-sized to large butterflies. Most species have a re ...
. It belongs to the ''serpa'' species group of the genus. The species was first described by the British
entomologist Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arach ...
Arthur Gardiner Butler Arthur Gardiner Butler F.L.S., F.Z.S. (27 June 1844 – 28 May 1925) was an English entomologist, arachnologist and ornithologist. He worked at the British Museum on the taxonomy of birds, insects, and spiders. Biography Arthur Gardiner ...
in 1865 as ''Heterochroa californica''. The
type specimen In biology, a type is a particular specimen (or in some cases a group of specimens) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralizes the ...
was recovered from California. It was treated generally as a species (though it included ''
Adelpha eulalia ''Adelpha eulalia'', the Arizona sister, is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It occurs from at least Guatemala and Mexico to the southwestern United States, including southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and sou ...
'' as a
synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are al ...
) until 1944, when the entomologists
Geoffrey Douglas Hale Carpenter G.D. Hale Carpenter MBE (26 October 1882 in Eton, Berkshire – 30 January 1953 in Oxford) was a British entomologist and medical doctor. He worked first at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and in Uganda, on tse-tse flies ...
and Bertram Maurice Hobby reclassified it as a subspecies of '' Adelpha bredowii''. Recent
phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
studies, however, conclude that morphological, geographical, and genetic evidence make it clear that it is a separate species. ''A. californica'' was also sometimes included in the genus ''
Limenitis ''Limenitis'' is a genus of brush-footed butterflies, commonly called the admirals. The sister butterflies (''Adelpha'') and commander butterflies (''Moduza ''Moduza'' is a genus of south-east Asian (Indomalayan realm) Nymphalidae, brush-foot ...
'' (admirals), but most modern lepidopterists classify it under the genus ''Adelpha''.


Distribution and habitat

''A. californica'' is found in the extreme western North America, from northern
Baja California Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
of
Mexico Mexico ( Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guate ...
, most of
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the ...
, western
Nevada Nevada ( ; ) is a state in the Western region of the United States. It is bordered by Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. Nevada is the 7th-most extensive, ...
, western
Oregon Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idah ...
of the United States. It may also sometimes be found in southwestern
Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
, though these are believed to be vagrant individuals. They are abundant in oak woodlands.


Description

The upper surfaces of the wings of ''A. californica'' are a dark brown to black. It has two large orange patches near the tip of the forewings and wide postdiscal creamy-white bands on both wings. The ventral surfaces of the wings are generally similar but with blue bands along the edges of both wings, as well as blue and orange patterns on the corners near the body. Like other members of the genus, the butterfly is named "sister" for its black and white markings on the forewing that resemble a
nun A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is ...
's
habit A habit (or wont as a humorous and formal term) is a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously.
. ''A. californica'' closely resembles '' A. bredowii'' and '' A. eulalia''. However it generally does not share the same distribution range as the other two. ''A. bredowii'' is only found in southern and western Mexico. ''A. eulalia'' is found in Arizona and the surrounding areas, though it may sometimes be found in southeastern California. They also differ morphologically from ''A. eulalia'' in usually being smaller and in the presence of a second orange bar in the upper proximal corner of the hindwings. ''A. californica'' also closely resembles the females of some species in the genus ''
Doxocopa ''Doxocopa'' is a genus of Neotropical butterflies in the family Nymphalidae, subfamily Apaturinae. It includes the following species: * ''Doxocopa agathina'' (Cramer,
777 777 may refer to: * 777 (number), a number * AD 777, a year of the Julian calendar * 777 BC, a year in the 8th century BC * Boeing 777, a commercial jet airliner :* Boeing 777X, the newer generation of the Boeing 777. Art and entertainment A ...
- Agathina emperor * ''Doxocopa burmeisteri'' (Godman & Salvin, 884 ...
''. Though their distribution range also do not overlap, as ''Doxocopa'' are primarily found in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean">Central America">884 ...
''. Though their distribution range also do not overlap, as ''Doxocopa'' are primarily found in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. Other species which resemble ''A. californica'' (though not as closely) includes other members of the genus ''Adelpha'', and the Lorquin's admiral (''Limenitis lorquini'').


Ecology and life cycle

The eggs of ''A. californica'' are green. They are laid singly on tips of leaves of oak plants (genus ''
Quercus An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ' ...
''), on the upper surface. There are five
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. Th ...
l
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow o ...
s. The first instar hatches from the egg after eleven days. It is olive green with pale flecks and a mottled light and dark brown head. It builds leaf perches from the leaf midrib, like the larvae of other members of the genus. After nine days, it molts into the second instar which is green with various shades of brown and a light brown head. After eight days it molts again into the third instar which is a pale brownish yellow covered densely in yellowish conical tubercles. It also has developing scoli (horn-like protrusions) each tipped with four to five black spines. The head is a pale green with four vertical brown stripes and also covered with tubercles. The fourth instar develops after four days and is a light reddish brown with greenish sides, yellowish tubercles, and fully developed scoli as well as new developing ones. It molts after nine days into the last instar which is olive green with brown undersides and legs, it is densely covered with yellowish tubercles (particularly at the bottom surfaces). All segments now possess scoli, some bearing white thick conical spines with black tips. The head is brown to pale brown, flattened and smooth, with a double row of long yellowish-white spines at the sides and a pair of black dorsal spines. The second to fifth instars all adopt a front-arched-rear-up posture when resting. After fourteen days, the final instar will
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
te. The pupa is pale brown to pale golden yellow with streaks and patches of dark brown and metallic gold. It is attached to tree trunks by a large silken web. The
adults An adult is a human or other animal that has reached full growth. In human context, the term ''adult'' has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a " minor", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of major ...
emerge after 10 days. The total development time from egg to adult is sixty-five days. The usual
host plant In biology and medicine, a host is a larger organism that harbours a smaller organism; whether a parasitic, a mutualistic, or a commensalist ''guest'' (symbiont). The guest is typically provided with nourishment and shelter. Examples include a ...
s for the larvae are the canyon live oak (''
Quercus chrysolepis ''Quercus chrysolepis'', commonly termed canyon live oak, canyon oak, golden cup oak or maul oak, is a North American species of evergreen oak that is found in Mexico and in the western United States, notably in the California Coast Ranges. This ...
'') and the coast live oak (''
Quercus agrifolia ''Quercus agrifolia'', the California live oak, or coast live oak, is a highly variable, often evergreen oak tree, a type of live oak, native to the California Floristic Province. It may be shrubby, depending on age and growing location, but is ...
''), as well as other species of oaks. This diet makes ''A. californica'' unpalatable to
predator Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill ...
s, which might explain why so many other species have formed a
mimicry complex In evolutionary biology, mimicry is an evolved resemblance between an organism and another object, often an organism of another species. Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry f ...
around it. The adults are commonly found flying near the upper branches of oak trees or perching near small streams and canyons. Males are commonly seen engaging in
mud-puddling Mud-puddling, or simply puddling, is a behaviour most conspicuous in butterflies, but occurs in other animals as well, mainly insects; they seek out nutrients in certain moist substances such as rotting plant matter, mud and carrion and they suc ...
in moist ground, typically in mid-morning. Both sexes also feed on nectar from flowers (though this is rare), as well as drink from rotting fruit, sap, and animal droppings. Depending on seasonal conditions and elevation, the species produces one to three generations annually, with the adults usually flying from March through November. Adults may sometimes last through the winter months.


Conservation

The species is not considered threatened and is classified as G5 by
NatureServe NatureServe, Inc. is a non-profit organization based in Arlington County, Virginia, US, that provides proprietary wildlife conservation-related data, tools, and services to private and government clients, partner organizations, and the public. Nat ...
. It is abundant throughout its range.


References


External links


Fundamental differences between the California Sister and the Arizona Sister
from the Utah Lepidopterists' Society
''Adelpha californica'' (Butler 1865)
from the
Tree of Life Web Project The Tree of Life Web Project is an Internet project providing information about the diversity and phylogeny of life on Earth. This collaborative peer reviewed project began in 1995, and is written by biologists from around the world. The site ...

''Adelpha californica'' (Butler 1865)
from Butterflies of America
''Adelpha californica'' (Butler 1865)
from Butterflies and Moths of North America {{Taxonbar, from=Q4682041 Adelpha Butterflies of North America Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands Butterflies described in 1865