Acorus Calamus
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''Acorus calamus'' (also called sweet flag, sway or muskrat root, among many other common names) is a
species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...
of
flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...
with psychoactive chemicals. It is a tall
wetland A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor ( anoxic) processes taking place, especially ...
monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are flowering plants whose seeds contain only one Embryo#Plant embryos, embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. A monocot taxon has been in use for several decades, but ...
of the family Acoraceae, in the genus ''
Acorus ''Acorus'' is a genus of monocot flowering plants. This genus was once placed within the family Araceae (aroids), but more recent classifications place it in its own family Acoraceae and order Acorales, of which it is the sole genus of the oldes ...
.'' Although used in
traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies, especially Indigenous groups, used for maintaining health and treatin ...
over centuries to treat digestive disorders and pain, it has no clinical evidence of safety or efficacy and may be
toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
if ingested, and so has been commercially banned in the United States.


Description

Sweet flag is a
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of ...
perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...
, tall. Its leaves resemble those of the iris family. Sweet flag consists of tufts of basal leaves that rise from a spreading
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...
. The leaves are erect yellowish-brown, radical, with pink sheathing at their bases, sword-shaped, flat and narrow, tapering into a long, acute point, and have parallel veins. The leaves have smooth edges, which can be wavy or crimped. The sweet flag can be distinguished from iris and other similar plants by the crimped edges of the leaves, the fragrant odor it emits when crushed, and the presence of a spadix. Only plants that grow in water bear flowers. The fruit is a berry filled with mucus, which when ripe falls into the water and disperses by floating. The solid, triangular flower-stems rise from the axils of the outer leaves. A semi-erect spadix emerges from one side of the flower stem. The spadix is solid, cylindrical, tapers at each end, and is 5 to 10 cm in length. A covering spathe, as is usual with
Araceae The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe (or leaf-like bract). Also ...
, is absent. The spadix is densely crowded with tiny greenish-yellow flowers. Each flower contains six petals and stamens enclosed in a perianth with six divisions, surrounding a three-celled, oblong ovary with a sessile stigma. The flowers are sweetly fragrant. In Europe, it flowers for about a month in late spring or early summer, but does not bear fruit. In Asia, it also fruits sparingly, and propagates itself mainly by growth of its rhizome, forming colonies. The branched, cylindrical, knobby rhizome is the thickness of a human finger and has numerous coarse fibrous roots below it. The exterior is brown and the interior white.


Range and habitat

Sweet flag grows in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, Nepal, central Asia, southern Russia and
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
, Europe and North America. Habitats include edges of small lakes, ponds and rivers, marshes, swamps, and other wetlands.


Names and etymology

In addition to "sweet flag" and "calamus" other common names include beewort, bitter pepper root, calamus root, flag root, gladdon, myrtle flag, myrtle grass, myrtle root, myrtle sedge, pine root, sea sedge, sweet cane, sweet cinnamon, sweet grass, sweet myrtle, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet sedge and wada kaha. The generic name is the
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
word ''acorus'', which is derived from the
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
άχόρου (áchórou) of
Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD), "the father of pharmacognosy", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of (in the original , , both meaning "On Materia medica, Medical Material") , a 5-volume Greek encyclopedic phar ...
(note different versions of the text have different spellings). The word άχόρου itself is thought to have been derived from the word κόρη (kóri), which means pupil (of an eye), because of the juice from the root of the plant being used as a remedy in diseases of the eye ('darkening of the pupil'). The specific name ''calamus'' is derived from Greek κάλαμος (kálamos, meaning "reed"),
cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the s ...
to Latin ''culmus'' ("stalk") and Old English ''healm'' ("straw"),
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
قَلَم (qálam, "pen"), in turn from
Proto-Indo European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...
''*kole-mo-'' (thought to mean "grass" or "reed"). The name "sweet flag" refers to its sweet scent and its similarity to ''Iris'' species, which have been commonly known as flags in English since at least the late fourteenth century.


History

The plant was already mentioned in the Chester Beatty papyrus VI dating to approximately 1300 BC. The ancient Egyptians rarely mentioned the plant in medicinal contexts, but it was certainly used to make perfumes.Manniche, Lisa; An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, p. 74; American University in Cairo Press; Cairo; 2006; Initially, Europeans confused the identity and medicinal uses of the ''Acorus calamus'' of the Romans and Greeks with their native ''
Iris pseudacorus ''Iris pseudacorus'', the yellow flag, yellow iris, or water flag, is a species of flowering plant in the family Iridaceae. It is native to Europe, western Asia and northwest Africa. Its specific epithet ''pseudacorus'' means "false acorus", r ...
''. Thus the ''Herbarius zu Teutsch'', published at Mainz in 1485, describes and includes a woodcut of this iris under the name ''Acorus''. This German book is one of three possible sources for the same error in the French ''Le Grant Herbier'', written in 1486, 1488, 1498 or 1508, which was also published in an English translation as the ''
Grete Herball The ''Grete Herball'' (The Great Herbal) is an Early Modern encyclopedia and the first illustrated herbal produced in English. It is preceded by Richard Banckes's unillustrated ''Herball'' (1525), which was the first printed English herbal ever pr ...
'' by Peter Treveris in 1526; all of these contain the false identification printed in the ''Herbarius zu Teutsch''. William Turner, writing in 1538, describes 'acorum' as "gladon or a flag, a yelowe floure delyce". The plant was introduced to Britain in the late 16th century. By at least 1596, true ''Acorus calamus'' was grown in Britain, as it is listed in ''The Catalogue'', a list of plants
John Gerard John Gerard (also John Gerarde, 1545–1612) was an English herbalist with a large garden in Holborn, now part of London. His 1,484-page illustrated ''Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes'', first published in 1597, became a popular garde ...
grew in his garden at Holborn. Gerard notes, "It prospereth exceeding well in my garden, but as yet beareth neither flowers nor stalke". Gerard lists the Latin name as ''Acorus verus'', but it is evident there was still doubt about its veracity: in his 1597 herbal he lists the English common name as 'bastard calamus'. Carl O. Sauer reported that the tuber was already being used by North American Indians at the time of European contact.


Taxonomy

There are three cytotypic forms distinguished by chromosome number: a diploid form (2n=24), an infertile triploid form (2n=36), and a tetraploid form (see below). The triploid form is the most common and is thought to have arisen relatively recently in the Himalayan region through hybridisation of the diploid with the tetraploid. Probably indigenous to most of Asia, the triploid form ''Acorus calamus'' var. ''calamus'' (also known as var. ''vulgaris'' or var. ''verus'') has now been introduced across
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
,
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
,
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
,
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
,
Réunion Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
and
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...
.Heng, Li (李恒), Guanghua, Zhu (朱光华); and Bogner, Josef; ''Flora of China'', Vol. 23, Acoraceae; Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden; Beijing & St. Louis; 2010; accessed at http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200027130Govaerts, R.; ''World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew''; 2002; http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=2309; accessed 9 July 2013 The tetraploid form ''Acorus calamus'' var. ''angustatus'' is native throughout Asia, from India to
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
and the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
and from
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
to Siberia. The diploid form ''
Acorus americanus ''Acorus americanus'', the American sweet flag, is an emergent wetland plant native to the northern United States and Canada. This perennial plant has bright green blade-shaped leaves that arise directly from the rhizomes and sheath into each ot ...
'' or ''Acorus calamus'' var. ''americanus'' is found in northern subarctic North America and scattered disjunct areas throughout the
Mississippi Valley The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...
. It may not be native to some of these areas, Pre-Columbian populations are thought to have dispersed it across parts of the United States.Thompson, Sue A.; ''Flora of North America'', Acorus; 2000; http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=100307 Other diploids are found in
Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
, central Siberia (
Buryatia Buryatia, officially the Republic of Buryatia, is a republic of Russia located in the Russian Far East. Formerly part of the Siberian Federal District, it has been administered as part of the Far Eastern Federal District since 2018. To its nort ...
), Gilgit–Baltistan in Pakistan occupied Kashmir and northern
Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh (; Sanskrit: ''himācāl prādes;'' "Snow-laden Mountain Province") is a States and union territories of India, state in the northern part of India. Situated in the Western Himalayas, it is one of the thirteen Indian Himalayan ...
in India. Currently the taxonomic position of the different forms is contested. The comprehensive taxonomic analysis in
Plants of the World Online Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online taxonomic database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. History Following the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew launched Plants of the World Online i ...
from 2023 considers all three forms to be distinct varieties of a single species. The Flora of North America publication considers the diploid form to be a distinct species; its analysis differentiates North American diploid forms from triploid and tetraploid varieties, and does not take into account the morphology of Asian forms of the diploid variety. Also, in older literature, the name ''Acorus americanus'' may be used indiscriminately for all forms of ''Acorus calamus'' occurring in North America, irrespective of cytological diversity (i.e. both the diploid and triploid forms). The treatment in the Flora of China from 2010 considers all varieties to be synonyms of a single taxonomically undifferentiated species, since characteristics that are treated as distinctive in the Flora of North America are subject to morphological overlap in Asian specimens. The primary morphological distinction between the triploid and the North American forms of the diploid is made by the number of prominent leaf veins, the diploid having a prominent midvein with equally raised secondary veins on both sides, the triploid having a single prominent midvein with the secondary veins barely distinct. According to the Flora of China, there is clear overlap in these characteristics and the different
cytotype A karyotype is the general appearance of the complete set of chromosomes in the cells of a species or in an individual organism, mainly including their sizes, numbers, and shapes. Karyotyping is the process by which a karyotype is discerned by de ...
s are impossible to distinguish morphologically. Triploid plants are infertile and show an abortive
ovary The ovary () is a gonad in the female reproductive system that produces ova; when released, an ovum travels through the fallopian tube/ oviduct into the uterus. There is an ovary on the left and the right side of the body. The ovaries are end ...
with a shrivelled appearance. This form will never form fruit (let alone seeds) and can only spread asexually. The tetraploid variety is usually known as ''Acorus calamus'' var. ''angustatus'' Besser. A number of synonyms are known, but some of those are contested as to which variety they belong. It is morphologically diverse, with some forms having very broad and some narrow leaves. It is also cytotypically diverse, with an array of different
karyotype A karyotype is the general appearance of the complete set of chromosomes in the cells of a species or in an individual organism, mainly including their sizes, numbers, and shapes. Karyotyping is the process by which a karyotype is discerned by de ...
s.


Chemistry

Calamus leaves and rhizomes contain a
volatile oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...
that gives a characteristic odor and flavor. Major components of the oil are beta-
asarone Asarone is chemical compound of the phenylpropanoid class found in certain plants such as ''Acorus'' and ''Asarum''. There are two isomers, α (or ''trans'') and β (or ''cis''). As a volatile fragrance oil, it is used in killing pests and bacte ...
(as much as 75%),
methyl isoeugenol Methyl isoeugenol (isomethyleugenol) is a phenylpropanoid, the methyl ether of isoeugenol, found in certain essential oils. It can occur as both (''E'')- and (''Z'')-isomers. See also * Methyl eugenol Methyl eugenol (allylveratrol) is a natu ...
(as much as 40%) and alpha-asarone,
saponin Saponins (Latin ''sapon'', 'soap' + ''-in'', 'one of') are bitter-tasting, usually toxic plant-derived secondary metabolites. They are organic chemicals that become foamy when agitated in water and have high molecular weight. They are present ...
s,
lectin Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that are highly specific for sugar Moiety (chemistry), groups that are part of other molecules, so cause agglutination (biology), agglutination of particular cells or precipitation of glycoconjugates an ...
s,
sesquiterpenoid Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many combinations. Biochemical modifications such ...
s,
lignan The lignans are a large group of low molecular weight polyphenols found in plants, particularly seeds, whole grains, and vegetables. The name derives from the Latin word for "wood". Lignans are precursors to phytoestrogens. They may play a rol ...
s, and
steroid A steroid is an organic compound with four fused compound, fused rings (designated A, B, C, and D) arranged in a specific molecular configuration. Steroids have two principal biological functions: as important components of cell membranes t ...
s.
Phytochemical Phytochemicals are naturally-occurring chemicals present in or extracted from plants. Some phytochemicals are nutrients for the plant, while others are metabolites produced to enhance plant survivability and reproduction. The fields of ext ...
s in the plant vary according to geographic location, plant age, climate, species variety, and plant component
extract An extract (essence) is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or absolutes or dried and powdered. The aromatic principles of ma ...
ed. Diploids do not contain beta-asarone.


Safety and regulations

''A. calamus'' and products derived from ''A. calamus'' (such as its oil) were banned from use as human food or as a food additive in 1968 by the
United States Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
. Although limits on consumption in food or alcoholic beverages (115
microgram In the metric system, a microgram or microgramme is a unit of mass equal to one millionth () of a gram. The unit symbol is μg according to the International System of Units (SI); the recommended symbol in the United States and United Kingdom wh ...
s per day) were recommended in a 2001 ruling by the
European Commission The European Commission (EC) is the primary Executive (government), executive arm of the European Union (EU). It operates as a cabinet government, with a number of European Commissioner, members of the Commission (directorial system, informall ...
, the degree of safe exposure remained undefined.


Toxicity

Although calamus has been used for its fragrance and ingested, it has not been studied by rigorous
clinical research Clinical research is a branch of medical research that involves people and aims to determine the effectiveness (efficacy) and safety of medications, devices, diagnostic products, and treatment regimens intended for improving human health. The ...
. Individual medical reports of toxicity mention severe
nausea Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. It can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of the throat. Over 30 d ...
and prolonged
vomit Vomiting (also known as emesis, puking and throwing up) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteritis, pregna ...
ing over many hours following oral uses. Laboratory studies of its
extract An extract (essence) is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or absolutes or dried and powdered. The aromatic principles of ma ...
s indicate other forms of toxicity, due mainly to the
emetic Vomiting (also known as emesis, puking and throwing up) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteritis, preg ...
compound β-
asarone Asarone is chemical compound of the phenylpropanoid class found in certain plants such as ''Acorus'' and ''Asarum''. There are two isomers, α (or ''trans'') and β (or ''cis''). As a volatile fragrance oil, it is used in killing pests and bacte ...
. Allegedly, the plant is psychoactive (
hallucinogen Hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics, entheogens, or historically as psychotomimetics, are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mo ...
ic), but for example all experiments with American calamus have been completely unsuccessful, even those involving very high dosages (up to 300 g of rhizomes).


Uses

''A. calamus'' has been an item of trade in many cultures for centuries. It has been used medicinally for a wide variety of ailments, such as
gastrointestinal disease Gastrointestinal diseases (abbrev. GI diseases or GI illnesses) refer to diseases involving the Human gastrointestinal tract, gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum; and the accessory or ...
s and treating pain, and its aroma makes calamus
essential oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the ...
valued in the perfume industry. The essence from the rhizome is used as a flavor for foods, alcoholic beverages, and
bitters A bitters (plural also ''bitters'') is traditionally an Alcoholic drink, alcoholic preparation flavored with botanical matter for a Bitterness (taste), bitter or bittersweet Flavoring, flavor. Originally, numerous longstanding brands of bitters ...
in Europe. It was also once used to make candy.


Food

The young stalks can be pulled when under ; the inner stems can be eaten raw. The roots can be washed, peeled, cut into small pieces, boiled, and simmered in syrup to make candy.


In herbal medicine

Sweet flag has a long history of use in Chinese, Nepalese, and Indian herbal traditions. Sweet flag was and is used as an
herbal medicine Herbal medicine (also called herbalism, phytomedicine or phytotherapy) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. Scientific evidence for the effectiveness of many herbal treatments ...
by the
Chipewyan people The Chipewyan ( , also called ''Denésoliné'' or ''Dënesųłı̨né'' or ''Dënë Sųłınë́'', meaning "the original/real people") are a Dene group of Indigenous peoples in Canada, Indigenous Canadian people belonging to the Athabaskan l ...
.


Horticulture

This plant is sometimes used as a pond plant in horticulture. There is at least one tetraploid ornamental
cultivar A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...
known; it is usually called 'Variegatus', but the RHS recommends calling it 'Argenteostriatus'.


Insecticide and antifungal

The asarone from ''A. calamus'', found most abundantly in the dried and pulverized roots, has been identified as having
insecticidal Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, in ...
properties. β-asarone also exhibits anti-fungal activity by inhibiting ergosterol biosynthesis in ''Aspergillus niger''. However, asarone's toxicity and carcinogenicity in mammals (including humans) means that it may be difficult to develop any practical medications or insecticides based on it.


References


External links

* {{Authority control Acorales Spices Edible plants Entheogens Herbal and fungal hallucinogens Herbal and fungal stimulants Absinthe Freshwater plants First Nations culture in Canada Flora of Western Canada Flora of Eastern Canada Flora of the Northwest Territories Flora of the Northeastern United States Flora of Alaska Flora of Idaho Flora of Illinois Flora of Iowa Flora of Kansas Flora of Minnesota Flora of Montana Flora of Nebraska Flora of South Dakota Flora of Virginia Flora of Washington (state) Flora of Wisconsin Flora of temperate Asia Flora of tropical Asia Plants used in traditional Native American medicine Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus