Abraham (Hrotsvitha Play)
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Abraham or Fall and Redemption of Mary is a play in Latin written by Hrotsvit of Grandersheim (–973). The play follows a young orphan, Mary, who is persuaded by her uncle Abraham, a
hermit A hermit, also known as an eremite (adjectival form: hermitic or eremitic) or solitary, is a person who lives in seclusion. Eremitism plays a role in a variety of religions. Description In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Chr ...
, and his companion, Effrem, to lead a life of complete
chastity Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is ''chaste'' refrains from sexual activity that is considered immoral or from any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for exampl ...
and devotion to God. When Mary submits to temptation and loses her
virginity Virginity is a social construct that denotes the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. As it is not an objective term with an operational definition, social definitions of what constitutes virginity, or the lack thereo ...
, she flees her religious life to become a prostitute. Years later, when Abraham comes to her disguised as a lover, Mary returns to her life of devotion and submits to a strict regimen of
penance Penance is any act or a set of actions done out of contrition for sins committed, as well as an alternative name for the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox sacrament of Reconciliation or Confession. The word ''penance'' derive ...
. Hrotsvit's play is considered a story about the divine forgiveness and the power of Mary's redemption.


Characters

* Abraham - a hermit * Effrem - a hermit * Mary - Abraham's niece * A Friend of Abraham * The Master of an Inn


Summary


Scene 1

In the desert near
Lampsacus Lampsacus (; ) was an ancient Greece, ancient Greek city located in modern day Turkey, strategically situated on the eastern side of the Hellespont in the northern Troad. An inhabitant of Lampsacus was called a Lampsacene. The name has been trans ...
, Abraham approaches his co-hermit, Effrem, outside of his cell and asks for a moment to talk. Effrem assures Abraham that as long as their talk is in praise of God, he is at Abraham's service. Abraham seeks Effrem's advice about what to do with his eight-year niece, whom Abraham has recently received custody of after the death of her parents. Abraham reveals that he loves the young orphan immensely and is worried about conserving her purity. Her name, Mary, compels him to initiate her into a monastic noviciate, and he asks Effrem for support in leading her down this path. Effrem obliges, and the two hermits set off to see her.


Scene 2

In Abraham's cell, Abraham and Effrem talk to Mary. Abraham asks Mary if she is willing to live a life of chastity in order to follow in the footsteps of her namesake Mary, the first of all virgins. Effrem notes the mystical significance of her name, persuading the young child that her place is alongside
Mother of God ''Theotokos'' (Greek: ) is a title of Mary, mother of Jesus, used especially in Eastern Christianity. The usual Latin translations are or (approximately "parent (fem.) of God"). Familiar English translations are "Mother of God" or "God-bearer ...
in Heaven. After commenting that she sees nothing mystical in her name, Effrem explains that 'Mary' stands for 'Stella Maris', meaning the star around which the world revolves. It is called ' Stella Maris' because it never sets and provides constant guidance for sailors steering their course. Mary wonders how she, "a poor frail creature made from the dust of the earth" live up to such a name. Effrem declares that she can do so by keeping remaining a virgin. If she does so, he asserts, she will be freed of her earthly body and eventually arrive in Mary's bridal chamber, in the arms of her Son. Excited by Effrem's rhetoric, Mary exclaims that she will deny herself in order to be worthy of those heavenly blessings. Effrem and Abraham are elated about her concession but decide that Abraham should build a little cell close to him from which he can watch her and guide her.


Scene 3

Four years later, Abraham returns to Effrem's cell will bad news. Overcome with sorrow, he announces that Mary has run away. He tells Effrem that a man dressed as a
monk A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...
made visits to the girl and seduced her. After having sex with the man, Mary become overwhelmed with remorse. Feeling unable to redeem herself, she chose to abandon her monastic commitment. Effrem is shocked by the news and wonders how Mary had been able to escape without Abraham noticing. Abraham discloses that two days before Mary's disappearance, he had a
nightmare A nightmare, also known as a bad dream, Retrieved 11 July 2016. is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind, typically fear but also despair, anxiety, disgust or sadness. The dream may contain situations o ...
in which a massive snake dashed outside his cell and grabbed a little white dove that was by his side. The snake devoured the dove and vanished. Thinking that his dream indicated a threat to the Church, he prayed to God for two days, asking Him to reveal the dream's meaning. In a second dream, the snake fell dead at his feet, and the dove reappeared unharmed. When he woke from this dream. Abraham realized that he had not heard Mary's usual singing for the past two days. He rushed to her cell, and found she had disappeared. Eventually, some people came by and informed him that Mary had "given herself up to the lusts of the world." No one knows where she has gone, but Abraham tells Effrem of his plan to enlist a friend who travels often. Abraham has asked this man to find her. When Abraham learns of her whereabouts, he will go to her disguised as a lover, in order to convert her back to her godly life. Effrem accepts this plan but asks what Abraham will do if he has meat or wine put before him while charging in the secular world. Abraham asserts that he must not refuse the meat or wine, so he will remain undetected. Condoning this, Effrem claims that in order to win back a soul for Christ, it is alright to stray from religious
asceticism Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing Spirituality, spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world ...
.


Scene 4

Two years later, a man dressed as a soldier approaches Abraham at his cell. Realizing the man is his friend who he had sent to look for Mary, Abraham readily greets him. Abraham's friend tells of Mary's occupancy at a house of "ill-fame" where she receives many lovers. The
brothel A brothel, strumpet house, bordello, bawdy house, ranch, house of ill repute, house of ill fame, or whorehouse is a place where people engage in Human sexual activity, sexual activity with prostitutes. For legal or cultural reasons, establis ...
is owned by a man who pays her well. Aghast at the news, Abraham demands a horse and an officer's uniform and hat. The friend gives him his disguise, and Abraham decides to take some gold so he can pay the master of Mary's house.


Scene 5

In the town of Assos, Abraham approaches the inn where Mary resides. The Master of the Inn greets Abraham, and Abraham asks for a place to stay. Once Abraham has received the man's hospitality, he asks see the young girl about whom he has heard great things. The man praises Mary's youth, telling Abraham that she "outshines all the other women."


Scene 6

In a room at the inn, the Master of the Inn brings Mary to Abraham. In an aside to the audience, Abraham calls on his personal strength to be able to see her "decked out in the guise of a harlot." He must preserve his disguise and not show his true feelings about her. When he sees her, Abraham asks Mary to give him a kiss. When she embraces Abraham, she recognizes Abraham's scent, but cannot place it. Mary begins crying, telling the audience "How far have I fallen, and into what a sink of iniquity!' When the Master of the Inn asks her why she cries, she exclaims that she wishes she had died before she fell into this disgraceful way of life. Abraham consoles the girl, and the three sit down for supper. When they have finished their meal, Mary tells Abraham to go to bed, where she will visit him.


Scene 7

When Mary and Abraham enter a bedroom at the inn, Abraham tells Mary to lock the door so that no one can come in. When Abraham takes off his disguise, Mary reveals her angelic life is lost. He asks her why she deserted him without telling him of her fall from grace. He and Effrem would have done penance on her behalf. Mary says that she could not bear to approach him in her defiled state. Abraham explains that
human nature Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of Thought, thinking, feeling, and agency (philosophy), acting—that humans are said to have nature (philosophy), naturally. The term is often used to denote ...
is to
sin In religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered ...
, and it is not the man who sins who deserves condemnation, but the man who fails to rise up from the sin. Hearing this, Mary falls at Abraham's feet. She stares at the ground, unable to look at him, believing that she does not deserve pardon. Abraham reasons with her to drop her despair and accept his guidance. Mary submits herself to his wishes. She says that she will walk behind him in his footsteps back to his cell, but Abraham demands that she will ride on his horse to protect her feet. Mary vows to devote herself to God.


Scene 8

Mary and Abraham arrive at Abraham's cell. When Abraham points out her empty cell, she is terrified of going in and facing her sin. Agreeing that Mary should avoid the place where "the Enemy has triumphed," Abraham tells her to occupy a different cell where the Serpent will not find her. He tells her that he will go to visit Effrem and tell him news of her return.


Scene 9

Outside Effrem's cell, Abraham tells Effrem that he has brought Mary back. Abraham tells his co-hermit that Mary has surrendered to her strict penance. She has put on a hair vest and is continuously
fasting Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...
so that her body can bow to the will of her soul. The two men rejoice in the forgiveness of God. The lift their hands to God, and praise Him for His mercy.


Hrotsvit

Hrotsvit, also known as Hrotswitha, was a tenth-century
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
canoness A canoness is a member of a religious community of women, historically a stable community dedicated to the celebration of the Liturgy of the Hours in a particular church. The name corresponds to a canon, the male equivalent, and both roles share a ...
. She came from an aristocratic background and settled at Gandersheim, where she had access to the abbey's extensive library.Sperberg-McQueen, M.R. “Whose Body Is It? Chaste Strategies and the Reinforcement of Patriarchy in Three Plays by Hrotswitha Von Gandersheim.” ''Women in German Yearbook'', vol. 8, 1992, pp. 47–71. ''JSTOR'', JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20688759. During her time at Gandersheim, Hrosvit wrote six plays influenced by Roman comic playwright,
Terence Publius Terentius Afer (; – ), better known in English as Terence (), was a playwright during the Roman Republic. He was the author of six Roman comedy, comedies based on Greek comedy, Greek originals by Menander or Apollodorus of Carystus. A ...
. In the preface to her plays, Hrosvit addresses this influence: "I...have not hesitated to imitate in my writings a poet erencewhose works are so widely read, in order to glorify, within the limits of my poor talent, the admirable chastity of Christian virgins in the same form which has been used to describe the shameless charms of sinful women." Hrostvit's project, therefore, was to write plays that redeem women from the moral depravity of Terence's work and to put forth an alternative narrative in which women are spiritually steadfast and courageous. In accordance with this mission, Hrosvit's heroines overcome obstacles in the preservation of their Christian virtue. That virtue usually takes the form of virginity – a central motif in ''Abraham.''


Feminist reception and criticism

''Abraham'', along with Hrotsvit's other five plays, has been the object of much
feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...
criticism. Scholars have disagreed about whether the play empowers women or reinforces oppressive systems. In her book ''Feminism and Theatre'', Sue-Ellen Case writes of Hrotsvit's popularity among pioneers of the suffrage movement. British suffragettes such as
Edith Craig Edith Ailsa Geraldine Craig ( Edith Godwin; 9 December 1869 – 27 March 1947), known as Edy Craig, was a prolific theatre director, producer, costume designer and early pioneer of the women's suffrage movement in England. She was the daughte ...
mounted Hrotsvit's plays and embraced the female playwright as a protofeminist hero. Contemporary critics have written nuanced assessments of Hrotsvit's story of Mary's fall and redemption. Stephen L. Wailes frames ''Abraham'' as a "contest of flesh and spirit...waged around Maria," in his essay, ''Beyond Virginity: Flesh and Spirit in the Plays of Hrotsvit of Gandersheim.''Stephen L. Wailes. “Beyond Virginity: Flesh and Spirit in the Plays of Hrotsvit of Gandersheim.” ''Speculum'', vol. 76, no. 1, 2001, pp. 1–27. ''JSTOR'', JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2903704. He argues that although the play deals with Mary's virginity, the central trial of ''Abraham'' is not her loss of virginity, but her power to overcome disgrace and despair through penance. Because Mary fell from grace, she is able to restore her faith with new strength and significance, ultimately bringing that power to others. M.R. Sperberg-McQueen takes a more skeptical look at the feminist implications of ''Abraham''. ''In Whose Body is it? Chaste Strategies and the Reinforcement of Patriarchy in Three Plays by Hrotswitha von Gandersheim,'' Sperberg-McQueen argues that Mary's identity and agency are stripped from her throughout ''Abraham.'' The suppression begins when Abraham and Effrem force their interpretation of the name, Mary, onto the young orphan. By conflating her with the Virgin Mary, Abraham and Effrem are setting Mary up for failure, impossibly demanding that the mortal little girl should live her life as a divine figure. In insisting that Mary eventually become the bride of Christ, Abraham deepens his male bond with God at Mary's expense. Sperberg-McQueen also suggests that Abraham was the perpetrator of Mary's
seduction In sexuality, seduction means enticing someone else into sexual intercourse or Human sexual activity, other sexual activity. Strategies of seduction include conversation and Sexual script theory, sexual scripts, paralanguage, paralingual featur ...
and that Mary was the victim of
incest Incest ( ) is sexual intercourse, sex between kinship, close relatives, for example a brother, sister, or parent. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by lineag ...
by Abraham. Despite her devotion to God, Mary's burgeoning womanhood becomes a mark of difference and
temptation Temptation is a desire to engage in short-term urges for enjoyment that threatens long-term goals.Webb, J.R. (Sep 2014). Incorporating Spirituality into Psychology of temptation: Conceptualization, measurement, and clinical implications. Sp ...
for Abraham. Overcome with the shame of this incest, Mary is compelled to escape. Only through an excruciating regimen of penance can Mary afford to live alongside Abraham again. By abusing her female body, Mary no longer becomes an object of temptation for Abraham. Regula Meyer Evitt also posits that Abraham committed incest in her essay, ''Incest Disguised: Ottonian Influence at Gandersheim and Hrotsvit's "Abraham".''Evitt, Regula Meyer. “Incest Disguised: Ottonian Influence at Gandersheim and Hrotsvit's ‘Abraham.’” ''Comparative Drama'', vol. 41, no. 3, 2007, pp. 349–369. ''JSTOR'', JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23238659. She notes that the circumstances surrounding Mary's loss of virginity are decidedly ambiguous. Not only is Abraham's role in Mary's loss of virginity dubious, but his disguise as a lover later in the play is also exploitative. When disguised as a lover, Abraham pursues Mary's kisses. Evitt suggests proposes that with Abraham's disguise, Hrotsvit is "demonstrating how male incestuous desire can present itself in disguise." In this way, Hrotsvit may be offering a subversive commentary on male desire and spiritual corruption in ''Abraham.''


References


External links

* {{Authority control 10th-century plays