Ḍamma

The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include consonant pointing known as (, ), and supplementary diacritics known as (, ). The latter include the vowel marks termed (, ; , ', ).

The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where all letters are consonants, leaving it up to the reader to fill in the vowel sounds. Short consonants and long vowels are represented by letters, but short vowels and consonant length are not generally indicated in writing. ' is optional to represent missing vowels and consonant length. Modern Arabic is always written with the ''i‘jām''—consonant pointing—but only religious texts, children's books and works for learners are written with the full ''tashkīl''—vowel guides and consonant length. It is, however, not uncommon for authors to add diacritics to a word or letter when the grammatical case or the meaning is deemed otherwise ambiguous. In addition, classical works and historical documents rendered to the general public are often rendered with the full ''tashkīl'', to compensate for the gap in understanding resulting from stylistic changes over the centuries.

Moreover, tashkīl can change the meaning of the entire word, for example, the words: (دِين), meaning (religion), and (دَين), meaning (debt). Even though they have the same letters, their meanings are different because of the tashkīl. In sentences without tashkīl, readers understand the meaning of the word by simply using context.

''Tashkīl''

The literal meaning of ' is 'formation'. As the normal Arabic text does not provide enough information about the correct pronunciation, the main purpose of ' (and ') is to provide a phonetic guide or a phonetic aid; i.e. show the correct pronunciation for children who are learning to read or foreign learners.

The bulk of Arabic script is written without ' (or short vowels). However, they are commonly used in texts that demand strict adherence to exact pronunciation. This is true, primarily, of the Qur'an (') and poetry. It is also quite common to add ' to hadiths ('; plural: ') and the Bible. Another use is in children's literature. Moreover, ' are used in ordinary texts in individual words when an ambiguity of pronunciation cannot easily be resolved from context alone. Arabic dictionaries with vowel marks provide information about the correct pronunciation to both native and foreign Arabic speakers. In art and calligraphy, ' might be used simply because their writing is considered aesthetically pleasing.

An example of a fully ''vocalised'' (''vowelised'' or ''vowelled'') Arabic from the ''Bismillah'':

Some Arabic textbooks for foreigners now use ' as a phonetic guide to make learning reading Arabic easier. The other method used in textbooks is phonetic romanisation of unvocalised texts. Fully vocalised Arabic texts (i.e. Arabic texts with '/diacritics) are sought after by learners of Arabic. Some online bilingual dictionaries also provide ' as a phonetic guide similarly to English dictionaries providing transcription.

Ḥarakāt (short vowel marks)

The ' , which literally means 'motions', are the short vowel marks. There is some ambiguity as to which ' are also '; the ', for example, are markers for both vowels and consonants.

Fatḥah

The is a small diagonal line placed ''above'' a letter, and represents a short (like the /a/ sound in the English word "cat"). The word ' itself () means ''opening'' and refers to the opening of the mouth when producing an . For example, with '' '' (henceforth, the base consonant in the following examples): .

When a is placed before a plain letter ('' '') (i.e. one having no hamza or vowel of its own), it represents a long (close to the sound of "a" in the English word "dad", with an open front vowel /æː/, not back /ɑː/ as in "father"). For example: . The ' is not usually written in such cases. When a fathah is placed before the letter ⟨⟩ (yā’), it creates an (as in "lie"); and when placed before the letter ⟨⟩ (wāw), it creates an (as in "cow").

Although paired with a plain letter creates an open front vowel (/a/), often realized as near-open (/ æ/), the standard also allows for variations, especially under certain surrounding conditions. Usually, in order to have the more central (/ ä/) or back (/ ɑ/) pronunciation, the word features a nearby back consonant, such as the emphatics, as well as ''qāf'', or '' rā’''. A similar "back" quality is undergone by other vowels as well in the presence of such consonants, however not as drastically realized as in the case of .Karin C. Ryding, "A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic", Cambridge University Press, 2005, pgs. 25-34, specifically “Chapter 2, Section 4: Vowels”

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Kasrah

A similar diagonal line ''below'' a letter is called a and designates a short (as in "me", "be") and its allophones , ɪ, e, e̞, ɛ(as in "Tim", "sit"). For example: .

When a ' is placed before a plain letter ('' ''), it represents a long (as in the English word "steed"). For example: . The ' is usually not written in such cases, but if '' '' is pronounced as a diphthong , ' should be written on the preceding letter to avoid mispronunciation. The word ' means 'breaking'.

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Ḍammah

The is a small curl-like diacritic placed above a letter to represent a short /u/ (as in "duke", shorter "you") and its allophones , ʊ, o, o̞, ɔ(as in "put", or "bull"). For example: .

When a is placed before a plain letter ('), it represents a long (like the 'oo' sound in the English word "swoop"). For example: . The ' is usually not written in such cases, but if ' is pronounced as a diphthong , ' should be written on the preceding consonant to avoid mispronunciation.

The word ''ḍammah'' (ضَمَّة) in this context means ''rounding'', since it is the only rounded vowel in the vowel inventory of Arabic.

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Alif Khanjarīyah

The superscript (or dagger) ' ('), is written as short vertical stroke on top of a letter. It indicates a long sound for which '' '' is normally not written. For example: (') or (').

The dagger ' occurs in only a few words, but they include some common ones; it is seldom written, however, even in fully vocalised texts. Most keyboards do not have dagger ''.'' The word Allah ()(God) is usually produced automatically by entering ''.'' The word consists of ' + ligature of doubled ' with a ' and a dagger ' above ', followed by ''ha.

Maddah

The is a tilde-shaped diacritic, which can only appear on top of an alif (آ) and indicates a glottal stop followed by a long .

In theory, the same sequence could also be represented by two 's, as in *, where a hamza above the first ' represents the while the second ' represents the . However, consecutive 's are never used in the Arabic orthography. Instead, this sequence must always be written as a single ' with a ' above it, the combination known as an '. For example: .

In Quranic writings, a ''maddah'' is placed on any other letter to denote the name of the letter, though some letters may take on a dagger ''alif''. For example: (''lām''-''mīm''-''ṣād'') or (''yāʼ-sīn)''

Alif waṣlah

The , or looks like the head of a small '' '' on top of an ' (also indicated by an ' without a '). It means that the ' is not pronounced when its word does not begin a sentence. For example: ('), but (''imshū'' not ''mshū''). This is because in Arabic, the first consonant in a word must always be followed by a vowel sound: If the second letter from the has a kasrah, the alif-waslah makes the sound /i/. However, when the second letter from it has a dammah, it makes the sound /u/.

It occurs only in the beginning of words, but it can occur after prepositions and the definite article. It is commonly found in imperative verbs, the perfective aspect of verb stems VII to X and their verbal nouns ('). The ''alif'' of the definite article is considered a '.

It occurs in phrases and sentences (connected speech, not isolated/dictionary forms):
* To replace the elided hamza whose alif-seat has assimilated to the previous vowel. For example: or (') 'in Yemen'.
* In hamza-initial imperative forms following a vowel, especially following the conjunction (') 'and'. For example: َ (') 'rise and then drink the water'.

Like the superscript alif, it is not written in fully vocalized scripts, except for sacred texts, like the Quran and Arabized Bible.

Sukūn

The is a circle-shaped diacritic placed above a letter (). It indicates that the letter to which it is attached is not followed by a vowel, i.e., zero-vowel.

It is a necessary symbol for writing consonant-vowel-consonant syllables, which are very common in Arabic. For example: (').

The may also be used to help represent a diphthong. A ' followed by the letter ('' '') with a over it () indicates the diphthong ' ( IPA ). A ', followed by the letter (') with a ', () indicates .

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The may have also an alternative form of the small high head of ' (), particularly in some Qurans. Other shapes may exist as well (for example, like a small comma above ⟨ʼ⟩ or like a circumflex ⟨ˆ⟩ in ').

Tanwīn

The three vowel diacritics may be doubled at the end of a word to indicate that the vowel is followed by the consonant ''n''. They may or may not be considered and are known as , or nunation. The signs indicate, from left to right, .

These endings are used as non-pausal grammatical indefinite case endings in Literary Arabic or classical Arabic ( triptotes only). In a vocalised text, they may be written even if they are not pronounced (see pausa). See '' '' for more details. In many spoken Arabic dialects, the endings are absent. Many Arabic textbooks introduce standard Arabic without these endings. The grammatical endings may not be written in some vocalized Arabic texts, as knowledge of '' '' varies from country to country, and there is a trend towards simplifying Arabic grammar.

The sign is most commonly written in combination with '' '' , '' '' , ' , or stand-alone ' . ' should always be written (except for words ending in ' or diptotes) even if ' is not. Grammatical cases and ' endings in indefinite triptote forms:

* ': nominative case;
* ': accusative case, also serves as an adverbial marker;
* ': genitive case.

Shaddah

The shadda or shaddah ('), or tashdid ('), is a diacritic shaped like a small written Latin " w".

It is used to indicate gemination (consonant doubling or extra length), which is phonemic in Arabic. It is written above the consonant which is to be doubled. It is the only ' that is commonly used in ordinary spelling to avoid ambiguity. For example: ; ' ('school') vs. ' ('teacher', female). Note that when the doubled letter bears a vowel, it is the shaddah that the vowel is attached to, not the letter itself: , .

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I‘jām

The ''i‘jām'' (; sometimes also called ') are the diacritic points that distinguish various consonants that have the same form ('), such as , . Typically ''i‘jām'' are not considered diacritics but part of the letter.

Early manuscripts of the Quran did not use diacritics either for vowels or to distinguish the different values of the ''.'' Vowel pointing was introduced first, as a red dot placed above, below, or beside the ', and later consonant pointing was introduced, as thin, short black single or multiple dashes placed above or below the ''rasm''. These ''i‘jām'' became black dots about the same time as the ' became small black letters or strokes.

Typically, Egyptians do not use dots under final ' (), which looks exactly like alif maqsurah () in handwriting and in print. This practice is also used in copies of the '' '' (Qurʾān) scribed by . The same unification of ' and ' has happened in Persian, resulting in what the Unicode Standard calls "", that looks exactly the same as ' in initial and medial forms, but exactly the same as ' in final and isolated forms.

At the time when the ''i‘jām'' was optional, unpointed letters were ambiguous. To clarify that a letter would lack ''i‘jām'' in pointed text, the letter could be marked with a small v- or seagull-shaped diacritic above, also a superscript semicircle (crescent), a subscript dot (except in the case of ; three dots were used with ), or a subscript miniature of the letter itself. A superscript stroke known as ''jarrah'', resembling a long ''fatħah'', was used for a contracted (assimilated) ''sin''. Thus were all used to indicate that the letter in question was truly and not . These signs, collectively known as ''‘alāmātu-l-ihmāl'', are still occasionally used in modern Arabic calligraphy, either for their original purpose (i.e. marking letters without ''i‘jām''), or often as purely decorative space-fillers. The small above the ''kāf'' in its final and isolated forms was originally an ''‘alāmatu-l-ihmāl'' that became a permanent part of the letter. Previously this sign could also appear above the medial form of ''kāf'', when that letter was written without the stroke on its ascender. When ''kaf'' was written without that stroke, it could be mistaken for ''lam'', thus ''kaf'' was distinguished with a superscript ''kaf'' or a small superscript ''hamza'' (''nabrah''), and ''lam'' with a superscript ''l-a-m'' (''lam-alif-mim'').

''Hamza''

Although not always considered a letter of the alphabet, the hamza (', glottal stop), often stands as a separate letter in writing, is written in unpointed texts and is not considered a ''.'' It may appear as a letter by itself or as a diacritic over or under an ', ', or '.

Which letter is to be used to support the ' depends on the quality of the adjacent vowels and its location in the word;

* If the glottal stop occurs at the beginning of the word:
** Indicated by hamza on an ': above if the following vowel is or and below if it is .
*** In order to clarify a starting /a/ or /u/, a respective ''fathah'' or ''dammah'' can be used
* If the glottal stop occurs in the middle of the word the following prioritization of writing qualities are used:
** First'':'' if ''hamza'' is it is preceded or followed by , ''hamza'' sits on a tooth; ex: <عَائِلَة>
** Second: if ''hamza'' is preceded or followed by /u/, ''hamza'' sits on '', <ؤ>''
** Third: else hamza sits on ''alif'', <أ>
* If the glottal stop occurs at the end of the word (ignoring any grammatical suffixes),
** First: if ''hamza'' follows a short vowel it is written above ', ', or ' the same as for a medial case;
** Second: if it follows a long vowel, diphthong or consonant, ''hamza'' is written on the line <ء>
* Exception: Two 's in succession are never allowed: is written with '' '' and is written with a free ' on the line .

Consider the following words: ("brother"), ("Ismael"), ("mother"). All three of above words "begin" with a vowel opening the syllable, and in each case, ' is used to designate the initial glottal stop (the ''actual'' beginning). But if we consider ''middle'' syllables "beginning" with a vowel: ("origin"), ("hearts"—notice the syllable; singular ), ("heads", singular ), the situation is different, as noted above. See the comprehensive article on ''hamzah'' for more details.

Diacritics not used in Modern Standard Arabic

Diacritics not used in Modern Standard Arabic but in other languages that use the Arabic script, and sometimes to write Arabic dialects, include (the list is not exhaustive):

Rohingya tone markers

Historically Arabic script has been adopted and used by many tonal languages, examples include Xiao'erjing for Mandarin Chinese as well as Ajami script adopted for writing various languages of Western Africa. However, the Arabic script never had an inherent way of representing tones until it was adapted for the Rohingya language. The ''Rohingya Fonna'' are 3 tone markers which are part of the standardized and accepted orthographic convention of Rohingya. It remains the only known instance of tone markers within the Arabic script.

Tone markers act as "modifiers" of vowel diacritics. In simpler words, they are "diacritics for the diacritics". They are written "outside" of the word, meaning that they are written above the vowel diacritic if the diacritic is written above the word, and they are written below the diacritic if the diacritic is written below the word. They are only ever written where there are vowel diacritics. This is important to note, as without the diacritic present, there is no way to distinguish between tone markers and ''I‘jām'' i.e. dots that are used for purpose of phonetic distinctions of consonants.

''Hārbāy''

The Hārbāy as it is called in Rohingya, is a single dot that's placed on top of ''Fatḥah'' and ''Ḍammah'', or ''curly Fatḥah'' and ''curly Ḍammah'' (vowel diacritics unique to Rohinghya), or their respective ''Fatḥatan'' and ''Ḍammatan'' versions, and it's placed underneath ''Kasrah'' or ''curly Kasrah'', or their respective ''Kasratan'' version. (e.g. ) This tone marker indicates a short high tone ().

''Ṭelā''

The Ṭelā as it is called in Rohingya, is two dots that are placed on top of ''Fatḥah'' and ''Ḍammah'', or ''curly Fatḥah'' and ''curly Ḍammah'', or their respective ''Fatḥatan'' and ''Ḍammatan'' versions, and it's placed underneath ''Kasrah'' or ''curly Kasrah'', or their respective ''Kasratan'' version. (e.g. ) This tone marker indicates a long falling tone ().

''Ṭāna''

The Ṭāna as it is called in Rohingya, is a fish-like looping line that is placed on top of ''Fatḥah'' and ''Ḍammah'', or ''curly Fatḥah'' and ''curly Ḍammah'', or their respective ''Fatḥatan'' and ''Ḍammatan'' versions, and it's placed underneath ''Kasrah'' or ''curly Kasrah'', or their respective ''Kasratan'' version. (e.g. ) This tone marker indicates a long rising tone ().

History

According to tradition, the first to commission a system of ''ḥarakāt'' was Ali who appointed Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali for the task. Abu al-Aswad devised a system of dots to signal the three short vowels (along with their respective allophones) of Arabic. This system of dots predates the ', dots used to distinguish between different consonants.

File:Basmala kufi.svg, Early Basmala Kufic
File:Kufi.jpg, Middle Kufic
File:Folio from a Qur’an, sura 91,14-15; sura 92,1-5 (F1929.70).jpg, Modern Kufic in Qur'an

Abu al-Aswad's system

Abu al-Aswad's system of Harakat was different from the system we know today. The system used red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel.

A dot above a letter indicated the vowel ', a dot below indicated the vowel ', a dot on the side of a letter stood for the vowel ', and two dots stood for the '' ''.

However, the early manuscripts of the Qur'an did not use the vowel signs for every letter requiring them, but only for letters where they were necessary for a correct reading.

Al Farahidi's system

The precursor to the system we know today is Al Farahidi's system. '' '' found that the task of writing using two different colours was tedious and impractical. Another complication was that the ' had been introduced by then, which, while they were short strokes rather than the round dots seen today, meant that without a color distinction the two could become confused.

Accordingly, he replaced the ' with small superscript letters: small alif, yā’, and wāw for the short vowels corresponding to the long vowels written with those letters, a small ''s(h)īn'' for ''shaddah'' (geminate), a small ''khā’'' for ''khafīf'' (short consonant; no longer used). His system is essentially the one we know today.

Automatic diacritization

The process of automatically restoring diacritical marks is called diacritization or diacritic restoration. It is useful to avoid ambiguity in applications such as Arabic machine translation, text-to-speech, and information retrieval. Automatic diacritization algorithms have been developed. For Modern Standard Arabic, the state-of-the-art algorithm has a word error rate (WER) of 4.79%. The most common mistakes are proper nouns and case endings. Similar algorithms exist for other varieties of Arabic.

See also

* Arabic alphabet:
** '' '' (), the case system of Arabic
** '' '' (), the basic system of Arabic consonants
** '' '' (), the phonetic rules of recitation of Qur'an in Arabic
* Hebrew:
** Hebrew diacritics, the Hebrew equivalent
** ''Niqqud,'' the Hebrew equivalent of '
** ''Dagesh,'' the Hebrew diacritic similar to Arabic ' and shaddah

References

Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), "Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup", ''Lang Resources & Evaluation'', Vol. 53, pp. 1-65

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