Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th
sultan of the Ottoman Empire
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...
, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state.
He oversaw a
period of decline with rebellions (particularly in the
Balkans
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
), and presided over
an unsuccessful war with the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
(1877–78), the loss of
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
,
Cyprus
Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
,
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
, Serbia, Montenegro,
Tunisia
Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares m ...
, and
Thessaly
Thessaly ( ; ; ancient Aeolic Greek#Thessalian, Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic regions of Greece, geographic and modern administrative regions of Greece, administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient Thessaly, a ...
from Ottoman control (1877–1882), followed by a successful
war against Greece in 1897, though Ottoman gains were tempered by subsequent Western European intervention.
Elevated to power in the wake of
Young Ottoman
The Young Ottomans (; ) were a secret society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the ''Tanzimat'' reforms in the Ottoman Empire, which they believed did not go far enough. The Young Ottomans sough ...
coups, he promulgated the
Ottoman Empire's first constitution,
a sign of the progressive thinking that marked his
early rule. But his enthronement came in the context of the
Great Eastern Crisis
The Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 began in the Ottoman Empire's Rumelia, administrative territories in the Balkan Peninsula in 1875, with the outbreak of several uprisings and wars that resulted in the intervention of international powers, ...
, which began with the Empire's default on its loans, uprisings by Christian Balkan minorities, and a
war with the Russian Empire. At the end of the crisis,
Ottoman rule in the Balkans and its international prestige were severely diminished, and the Empire lost its economic sovereignty as its finances came under the control of the
Great Powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power ...
through the
Ottoman Public Debt Administration
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA) (, or simply ''Düyun-u Umumiye'' as it was popularly known, , ), was a European-controlled organization that was established in 1881 to collect the payments which the Ottoman Empire owed to European ...
.
In 1878, Abdul Hamid consolidated his rule by suspending both the constitution and the parliament,
, and curtailing the power of the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or ''Babıali''; ), was a synecdoche or metaphor used to refer collectively to the central government of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. It is particularly referred to the buildi ...
. He ruled as an autocrat for three decades. Ideologically an
Islamist, the sultan asserted his title of
Caliph
A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
to Muslims around the world. His paranoia about being overthrown, like his
uncle
An uncle is usually defined as a male relative who is a sibling of a parent or married to a sibling of a parent, as well as the parent of the cousins. Uncles who are related by birth are second-degree relatives. The female counterpart of an un ...
and
half-brother
A sibling is a relative that shares at least one parent with the other person. A male sibling is a brother, and a female sibling is a sister. A person with no siblings is an only child.
While some circumstances can cause siblings to be raised ...
, led to the creation of
secret
Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups who do not have the "need to know", perhaps while sharing it with other individuals. That which is kept hidden is known as the secret.
Secrecy is often controver ...
police
The police are Law enforcement organization, a constituted body of Law enforcement officer, people empowered by a State (polity), state with the aim of Law enforcement, enforcing the law and protecting the Public order policing, public order ...
organizations and a censorship regime. The Ottoman Empire's modernization and centralization continued during his reign, including reform of the bureaucracy, extension of the
Rumelia Railway and the
Anatolia Railway, and construction of the
Baghdad Railway
Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
and the
Hejaz Railway. Systems for population registration,
sedentarization
In anthropology, sedentism (sometimes called sedentariness; compare sedentarism) is the practice of living in one place for a long time. As of , the large majority of people belong to sedentary cultures. In evolutionary anthropology and arch ...
of tribal groups, and control over the press were part of a unique
imperialist
Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power ( diplomatic power and cultural imperialism). Imperialism fo ...
system in fringe provinces known as
borrowed colonialism
''Borrowed'' is a 2022 drama film directed by Carlos Rafael Betancourt and Oscar Ernesto Ortega. The film explores the relationship between two men living in South Florida. ''Borrowed'' stars Jonathan Del Arco and Héctor Medina, and had its worl ...
. The farthest-reaching reforms were in education, with many professional schools established in fields such as law, arts, trades, civil engineering, veterinary medicine, customs, farming, and linguistics, along with the first local modern law school in 1898. A network of primary, secondary, and military schools extended throughout the Empire. German firms played a major role in developing the Empire's railway and telegraph systems.
Ironically, the same education institutions that the Sultan sponsored proved to be his downfall. Large sections of the pro-constitutionalist Ottoman
intelligentsia
The intelligentsia is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the i ...
sharply criticized and opposed him for his repressive policies, which coalesced into the
Young Turks
The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...
movement.
Ethnic minorities started organizing their own
national liberation movements
National may refer to:
Common uses
* Nation or country
** Nationality – a ''national'' is a person who is subject to a nation, regardless of whether the person has full rights as a citizen
Places in the United States
* National, Maryland, ...
, resulting in insurgencies in
Macedonia
Macedonia (, , , ), most commonly refers to:
* North Macedonia, a country in southeastern Europe, known until 2019 as the Republic of Macedonia
* Macedonia (ancient kingdom), a kingdom in Greek antiquity
* Macedonia (Greece), a former administr ...
and
Eastern Anatolia
The Eastern Anatolia region () is a geographical region of Turkey. The most populous province in the region is Van Province. Other populous provinces are Malatya, Erzurum and Elazığ.
It is bordered by the Black Sea Region and Georgia in th ...
. Armenians especially suffered from
massacres
A massacre is an event of killing people who are not engaged in hostilities or are defenseless. It is generally used to describe a targeted killing of civilians en masse by an armed group or person.
The word is a loan of a French term for "b ...
and
pogrom
A pogrom is a violent riot incited with the aim of Massacre, massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews. The term entered the English language from Russian to describe late 19th- and early 20th-century Anti-Jewis ...
s at the hands of the
''Hamidiye'' regiments. Of the many assassination attempts during Abdul Hamid's reign, one of the most famous is the
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (, abbr. ARF (ՀՅԴ) or ARF-D), also known as Dashnaktsutyun (Armenians, Armenian: Դաշնակցություն, Literal translation, lit. "Federation"), is an Armenian nationalism, Armenian nationalist a ...
's
Yıldız assassination attempt
The attempted assassination of Abdul Hamid II, also known as Operation Nejuik or the Yıldız attack, was an action carried out on 21 July 1905 by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) and anarchist militants against Ottoman Sultan Abdul Ha ...
of 1905.
In 1908, the
Committee of Union and Progress
The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...
forced him to recall parliament and reinstate the constitution in the
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...
. Abdul Hamid II attempted to reassert his absolutism a year later, resulting in his deposition by
pro-constitutionalist forces in the
31 March incident
The 31 March incident () was an uprising in the Ottoman Empire in April 1909, during the Second Constitutional Era. The incident broke out during the night of 30–31 Mart 1325 in Rumi calendar ( GC 12–13 April 1909), thus named after 31 Mar ...
, though the role he played in these events is disputed.
Abdul Hamid has been long vilified as a
reactionary
In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
"Red Sultan" for his tyrannical leadership and condoning of atrocities. It was initial consensus that his personal rule accelerated disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, holding back modernization during the otherwise dynamic
Belle Époque
The Belle Époque () or La Belle Époque () was a period of French and European history that began after the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 and continued until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the Fr ...
. Recent assessments have highlighted his promotion of education and public works projects, his reign a culmination and advancement of the ''
Tanzimat
The (, , lit. 'Reorganization') was a period of liberal reforms in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. Driven by reformist statesmen such as Mustafa Reşid Pash ...
'' reforms. Since the
AKP's rise to power, scholars have attributed a resurgence in his personality cult an attempt to check
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk ( 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish field marshal and revolutionary statesman who was the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President of Turkey, president from 1923 until Death an ...
's established image as the founder of modern
Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
.
Early life
Hamid
Efendi
Effendi or effendy ( ; ; originally from ) is a title of nobility meaning ''sir'', ''lord'' or ''master'', especially in the Ottoman Empire and the Caucasus''.'' The title itself and its other forms are originally derived from Medieval Greek ...
was born on 21 September 1842 either in
Çırağan Palace
Çırağan Palace (), a former Ottoman palace, is now a five-star hotel in the Kempinski Hotels chain. It is located on the European shore of the Bosporus, between Beşiktaş and Ortaköy in Istanbul, Turkey.
The Sultan Suite, billed at pe ...
,
Ortaköy
Ortaköy (, ''Middle Village)'' is a neighbourhood in the municipality and district of Beşiktaş, Istanbul Province, Turkey. Its population is 9,121 (2024). It is on the European shore of the Bosphorus. it was originally a small fishing villag ...
, or at
Topkapı Palace
The Topkapı Palace (; ), or the Seraglio, is a large museum and library in the east of the Fatih List of districts of Istanbul, district of Istanbul in Turkey. From the 1460s to the completion of Dolmabahçe Palace in 1856, it served as the ad ...
, both in
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. He was the son of Sultan
Abdulmejid I ʻAbd al-Majīd (ALA-LC romanization of , ), also spelled as Abd ul Majid, Abd ul-Majid, Abd ol Majid, Abd ol-Majid, and Abdolmajid, is a Muslim male given name and, in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' ʻabd'' and ''al-Maj ...
and
Tirimüjgan Kadın
Gülnihal Tirimüjgan Kadın (16 October 1819 – 3 October 1852; , ''young rose'' and ''darting eyelashes'') was a consort of Sultan Abdulmejid I, and the mother of Sultan Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire.
Early life
Tirimüjgan was of Sha ...
(
Circassia
Circassia ( ), also known as Zichia, was a country and a historical region in . It spanned the western coastal portions of the North Caucasus, along the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. Circassia was conquered by the Russian Empire during ...
, 20 August 1819Constantinople,
Feriye Palace
The Feriye Palace () is a complex of Ottoman imperial palace buildings along the European shoreline of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul, Turkey. Currently, the buildings host educational institutions such as a high school and a university.
Histo ...
, 2 November 1853),
originally named Virjinia.
Following his mother's death, he became the adoptive son of his father's legal wife,
Perestu Kadın
Rahime Perestu Sultan ( and 'swallow'; 1830 – 1904), also known as Rahime Perestu Kadın, was the first legal wife of Sultan Abdulmejid I of the Ottoman Empire. She was given the title and position of Valide sultan (Queen mother) when Abdul ...
. Perestu was also the adoptive mother of Abdul Hamid's half-sister
Cemile Sultan
Cemile Sultan (; "''beautiful, radiant''"; 17 August 1843 – 26 February 1915) was an Ottoman dynasty, Ottoman princess, the daughter of Sultan Abdulmejid I and Düzdidil Hanım. She was the half sister of Sultans Murad V, Abdul Hamid II, Mehme ...
, whose mother
Düzdidil Kadın had died in 1845, leaving her motherless at the age of two. The two were brought up in the same household, where they spent their childhood together.
Unlike many other Ottoman sultans, Abdul Hamid II visited distant countries. In the summer of 1867, nine years before he ascended the throne, he accompanied his uncle Sultan
Abdul Aziz on a visit to
Paris
Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
(30 June – 10 July 1867),
London
London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
(12–23 July 1867),
Vienna
Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
(28–30 July 1867), and capitals or cities of a number of other European countries.
Accession to the Ottoman throne
Abdul Hamid ascended the throne after his brother
Murad
Murad or Mourad () is an Arabic name. It is also common in Armenian, Azerbaijani, Bengali, Turkish, Persian, and Berber as a male given name or surname and is commonly used throughout the Muslim world and Middle East.
Etymology
It is derived ...
was deposed on 31 August 1876.
At his accession, some commentators were impressed that he rode practically unattended to the
Eyüp Sultan Mosque
The Eyüp Sultan Mosque () is a mosque in Eyüp district of Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque complex includes a mausoleum marking the spot where Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Ebu Eyüp el-Ansari (Abu Ayyub al-Ansari), the standard-bearer and companion of the ...
, where he was presented with the
Sword of Osman
The Sword of Osman (; ) is an important sword of state that was used during the enthronement ceremony () of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire, from the accession of Murad II onwards. This particular type of enthronement ceremony was the Ottoman va ...
. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to support liberal movements, but he acceded to the throne at a
critical time. Economic and political turmoil, local wars in the Balkans, and the
Russo-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish wars ( ), or the Russo-Ottoman wars (), began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918. They consisted of twelve conflicts in total, making them one of the longest series of wars in the history of Europe. All but four of ...
threatened the Empire's very existence.
First Constitutional Era, 1876–1878
Abdul Hamid worked with the
Young Ottomans
The Young Ottomans (; ) were a secret society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the '' Tanzimat'' reforms in the Ottoman Empire, which they believed did not go far enough. The Young Ottomans soug ...
to realize some form of constitutional arrangement.
This new form could help bring about a liberal transition with an Islamic provenance. The Young Ottomans believed that the modern parliamentary system was a restatement of the practice of consultation, or ''
shura
Shura () is the term for collective decision-making in Islam. It can, for example, take the form of a council or a referendum. The Quran encourages Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with each other.
Shura is mentioned as a praise ...
'', that had existed in early Islam.
In December 1876, due to the
1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the ongoing
war with Serbia and
Montenegro
, image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg
, coa_size = 80
, national_motto =
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map = Europe-Mont ...
, and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the 1876
Bulgarian rebellion
Bulgarian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to the country of Bulgaria
* Bulgarians, a South Slavic ethnic group
* Bulgarian language, a Slavic language
* Bulgarian alphabet
* A citizen of Bulgaria, see Demographics of Bulgaria
* Bul ...
, Abdul Hamid promulgated a constitution and a parliament.
Midhat Pasha
Ahmed Şefik Midhat Pasha (; 1822 – 26 April 1883) was an Ottoman politician, reformist, and statesman. He was the author of the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire.
Midhat was born in Istanbul and educated from a private . In July 1872, he ...
headed the commission to establish a new constitution, and the cabinet passed the constitution on 6 December 1876, allowing for a
bicameral legislature
Bicameralism is a type of legislature that is divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single ...
with
senatorial
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the eld ...
appointments made by the sultan. The first ever
election
An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...
in the Ottoman Empire was held in 1877. Crucially, the constitution gave Abdul Hamid the right to exile anyone he deemed a threat to the state.
The delegates to the
Constantinople Conference
The 1876–77 Constantinople Conference ( "Shipyard Conference", after the venue ''Tersane Sarayı'' "Shipyard Palace") of the Great Powers (Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia) was held in Constantinople (now Istanbul) f ...
were surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a too-radical change; they preferred the 1856 constitution (''
Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu)'' or the 1839 Gülhane edict (
''Hatt-ı Şerif''), and questioned whether a parliament was necessary to act as an official voice of the people.
In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire, it proved nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, and early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
.
War with Russia

Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was realized with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies. Russian chancellor
Prince Gorchakov had by that time effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the
Reichstadt Agreement
On the occasion of the Balkan crisis, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Russian Tsar Alexander II met on 8 July 1876 for secret talks, the results of which were later termed the Reichstadt Agreement (also: Reichstadt Convention) by h ...
. The British Empire, though still fearing the Russian threat to the
British presence in India, did not involve itself in the conflict because of public opinion against the Ottomans, following reports of Ottoman brutality in putting down the Bulgarian uprising. Russia's victory was quick; the conflict ended in February 1878. The
Treaty of San Stefano
The 1878 Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano (; Peace of San-Stefano, ; Peace treaty of San-Stefano, or ) was a treaty between the Russian and Ottoman empires at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. It was signed at San Ste ...
, signed at the end of the war, imposed harsh terms: the Ottoman Empire gave independence to
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
, Serbia, and Montenegro; it granted autonomy to Bulgaria; instituted reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and ceded parts of
Dobrudzha
Dobruja or Dobrudja (; or ''Dobrudža''; , or ; ; Dobrujan Tatar: ''Tomrîğa''; Ukrainian and ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeastern Europe that has been divided since the 19th century between the territories of Bulgari ...
to Romania and parts of
Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
to Russia, which was also paid an enormous indemnity. After the war, Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution in February 1878 and dismissed the parliament, after its only meeting, in March 1877. For the next three decades, Abdul Hamid ruled the Ottoman Empire from
Yıldız Palace
Yıldız Palace (, ) is a vast complex of former imperial Ottoman Empire, Ottoman pavilions and villas in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, Turkey, built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was used as a residence by the List of sultans of the Ottoman ...
.
As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, the Treaty of San Stefano greatly increased its influence in
Southeastern Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe is a geographical sub-region of Europe, consisting primarily of the region of the Balkans, as well as adjacent regions and Archipelago, archipelagos. There are overlapping and conflicting definitions of t ...
. At the Great Powers' insistence (especially the United Kingdom's), the treaty was revised at the
Congress of Berlin
At the Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878), the major European powers revised the territorial and political terms imposed by the Russian Empire on the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878), which had ended the Rus ...
so as to reduce the great advantages Russia gained. In exchange for these favors,
Cyprus
Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
was ceded
to Britain in 1878. There were troubles in Egypt, where a discredited ''
khedive
Khedive ( ; ; ) was an honorific title of Classical Persian origin used for the sultans and grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire, but most famously for the Khedive of Egypt, viceroy of Egypt from 1805 to 1914.Adam Mestyan"Khedive" ''Encyclopaedi ...
'' had to be deposed. Abdul Hamid mishandled relations with
Urabi Pasha
Ahmed Urabi (; Arabic: ; 31 March 1841 – 21 September 1911), also known as Ahmed Ourabi or Orabi Pasha, was an Egyptian military officer. He was the first political and military leader in Egypt to rise from the ''fellahin'' (peasantry). Urabi p ...
, and as a result, Britain gained
de facto control over
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Sudan
Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...
by sending its troops in 1882 to establish control over the two provinces. Cyprus, Egypt, and Sudan ostensibly remained Ottoman provinces until 1914, when Britain officially annexed them in response to the Ottoman participation in
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
on the side of the
Central Powers
The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,; ; , ; were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulga ...
.
Reign
Disintegration

Abdul Hamid's distrust of the reformist admirals of the
Ottoman Navy
The Ottoman Navy () or the Imperial Navy (), also known as the Ottoman Fleet, was the naval warfare arm of the Ottoman Empire. It was established after the Ottomans first reached the sea in 1323 by capturing Praenetos (later called Karamürsel ...
(whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to restore the constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (the world's third-largest fleet during the reign of his predecessor
Abdul Aziz) inside the
Golden Horn
The Golden Horn ( or ) is a major urban waterway and the primary inlet of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey. As a natural estuary that connects with the Bosphorus Strait at the point where the strait meets the Sea of Marmara, the waters of the ...
indirectly caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.
Financial difficulties forced him to consent to foreign control over the
Ottoman national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to the
Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders (see
Kararname of 1296
The ''Kararname of 1296'' (Turkish: ''Meskûkât-ı Osmaniye Kararnamesi'' ), was a decree concerning monetary systems of the Ottoman Empire. This kararname established a bimetallic currency system based on gold and silver in the year 1296 AH (188 ...
).
The 1885
union
Union commonly refers to:
* Trade union, an organization of workers
* Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets
Union may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment Music
* Union (band), an American rock group
** ''Unio ...
of Bulgaria with
Eastern Rumelia
Eastern Rumelia (; ; ) was an autonomous province (''oblast'' in Bulgarian, ''vilayet'' in Turkish) of the Ottoman Empire with a total area of , which was created in 1878 by virtue of the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Treaty of Berlin and ''de facto'' ...
was another blow to the Empire. The creation of an independent and powerful Bulgaria was viewed as a serious threat to the Empire. For many years Abdul Hamid had to deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize the Russians or the Germans. There were also key problems regarding the
Albania
Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
n question resulting from the Albanian
League of Prizren
The League of Prizren (), officially the League for the Defense of the Rights of the Albanian Nation (), was an Albanian political organization that was officially founded on June 10, 1878 in the old town of Prizren in the Kosovo Vilayet of th ...
and with the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
and Montenegrin frontiers, where the European powers were determined that the
Berlin Congress
At the Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878), the major European powers revised the territorial and political terms imposed by the Russian Empire on the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878), which had ended the Rus ...
's decisions be carried out.
Crete
Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...
was granted "extended privileges", but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with
Greece
Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
. In early 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrow Ottoman rule on the island. This act was followed by the
Greco-Turkish War, in which the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece, but as a result of the
Treaty of Constantinople, Crete was taken over ''en depot'' by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. Prince George of Greece was appointed ruler and Crete was effectively lost to the Ottoman Empire.
The ʿAmmiyya, a revolt in 1889–90 among Druze and other Ottoman Syria, Syrians against excesses of the local sheikhs, similarly led to capitulation to the rebels' demands, as well as concessions to Kingdom of Belgium, Belgian and French Third Republic, French companies to provide Beirut-Damascus Railway, a railroad between Beirut and Damascus.
Political decisions and reforms
Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer. Despite working with the reformist
Young Ottomans
The Young Ottomans (; ) were a secret society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the '' Tanzimat'' reforms in the Ottoman Empire, which they believed did not go far enough. The Young Ottomans soug ...
while still crown prince and appearing to be a liberal leader, he became increasingly conservative after taking the throne. In a process known as ''İstibdad'', Abdul Hamid reduced his ministers to acting as secretaries and concentrated much of the Empire's administration into his own hands. Default in the public funds, an empty treasury, the
1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
war with Serbia and
Montenegro
, image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg
, coa_size = 80
, national_motto =
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map = Europe-Mont ...
, the result of Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Russo-Turkish war, and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by Abdul Hamid's government in stamping out April Uprising of 1876, the Bulgarian rebellion all contributed to his apprehension regarding enacting significant changes.
His push for education resulted in the establishment of 18 professional schools; and in 1900, Darulfunun, Darülfünûn-u Şahâne, now known as Istanbul University, was established.
He also created a large system of primary, secondary, and military schools throughout the empire.
51 secondary schools were constructed in a 12-year period (1882–1894). As the goal of the educational reforms in the Hamidian era were to counter foreign influence, these secondary schools used European teaching techniques while instilling in students a strong sense of Ottomanism, Ottoman identity and Islamic morality.
Abdul Hamid also reorganized the Ministry of Justice (Ottoman Empire), Ministry of Justice and developed rail and telegraph systems.
The telegraph system was expanded to incorporate the furthest parts of the Empire. Railways connected Constantinople and Vienna by 1883, and shortly afterward the Orient Express connected Paris to Constantinople. During his rule, railways within the Ottoman Empire expanded to connect Ottoman-controlled Europe and Anatolia with Constantinople as well. The increased ability to travel and communicate within the Ottoman Empire served to strengthen Constantinople's influence over the rest of the Empire.
Abdul Hamid introduced legislation against the slave trade via the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880 and the Kanunname of 1889.
Abdul Hamid took stringent measures regarding his security. The memory of the deposition of
Abdul Aziz was on his mind and convinced him that a constitutional government was not a good idea. Because of this, information was tightly controlled and the press rigidly censored. A secret police (Umur-u Hafiye) and a network of informants was present throughout the empire, and many leading figures of the Second Constitutional Era and Ottoman successor states were arrested or exiled. School curricula were closely inspected to prevent dissidence. Ironically, the schools that Abdul Hamid founded and tried to control became "breeding grounds of discontent" as students and teachers alike chafed at the censors' clumsy restrictions.
Armenian question

Starting around 1890, Armenians began demanding implementation of the reforms promised to them at the Berlin Conference.
To prevent such measures, in 1890–91 Abdul Hamid gave semi-official status to the bandits who were already actively mistreating the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Armenians in the provinces. Made up of Kurds and other ethnic groups such as Turkoman (ethnonym), Turcomans, and armed by the state, they came to be called the ''Hamidiye (cavalry), Hamidiye Alayları'' ("Hamidian Regiments").
The Hamidiye and Kurdish brigands were given free rein to attack Armenians – confiscating stores of grain, foodstuffs, and driving off livestock – confident of escaping punishment as they were subject only to court-martial.
In the face of such violence, the Armenians established revolutionary organizations: the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak; founded in Switzerland in 1887) and the
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (, abbr. ARF (ՀՅԴ) or ARF-D), also known as Dashnaktsutyun (Armenians, Armenian: Դաշնակցություն, Literal translation, lit. "Federation"), is an Armenian nationalism, Armenian nationalist a ...
(the ARF or Dashnaktsutiun, founded in 1890 in Tbilisi, Tiflis).
Unrest ensued and clashes occurred in 1892 at Merzifon and in 1893 at Tokat. Abdul Hamid put these revolts down with harsh methods.
As a result, 300,000 Armenians were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. News of the massacres was widely reported in Europe and the United States and drew strong responses from foreign governments and humanitarian organizations.
Abdul Hamid was called the "Bloody Sultan" or "Red Sultan" in the West. On 21 July 1905, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation Yıldız assassination attempt, attempted to assassinate him with a car bomb during a public appearance, but he was delayed for a minute, and the bomb went off too early, killing 26, wounding 58 (four of whom died during their treatment in hospital), and destroying 17 cars. This continued aggression, along with the handling of the Armenian desire for reform, led western European powers to take a more hands-on approach with the Turks.
Abdul Hamid survived an attempted stabbing in 1904 as well.
Foreign policy
Pan-Islamism

Abdul Hamid did not believe that the
Tanzimat
The (, , lit. 'Reorganization') was a period of liberal reforms in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. Driven by reformist statesmen such as Mustafa Reşid Pash ...
movement could succeed in helping the disparate peoples of the empire achieve a common identity, such as Ottomanism. He adopted a new ideological principle, Pan-Islamism; since, beginning in 1517, Ottoman sultans were also nominally Caliphs, he wanted to promote that fact and emphasized the Ottoman Caliphate. Given the great diversity of ethnicities in the Ottoman Empire, he believed that Islam was the only way to unite his people.
Pan-Islamism encouraged Muslims living under European powers to unite under one polity. This threatened several European countries: Austria-Hungary, Austria through Bosnian Muslims; Russian Empire, Russia through Tatars and Kurds; French colonial empire, France and Spanish Empire, Spain through Morocco, Moroccan Muslims; and British Empire, Britain through British Raj, Indian Muslims.
Foreigners' privileges in the Ottoman Empire, which were an obstacle to effective government, were curtailed. At the very end of his reign, Abdul Hamid finally provided funds to start construction of the strategically important Baghdad Railway, Constantinople-Baghdad Railway and the Hejaz railway, Constantinople-Medina Railway, which would ease the trip to Mecca for the pilgrimage, Hajj; after he was deposed, the CUP accelerated and completed construction of both railways. Missionaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the Caliph's supremacy.
During his rule, Abdul Hamid refused Theodor Herzl's offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt (150 million pounds sterling in gold) in exchange for a charter allowing the Zionists to settle in Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, Palestine. He is famously quoted as telling Herzl's Emissary, "as long as I am alive, I will not have our body divided; only our corpse they can divide."
Pan-Islamism was a considerable success. After the Greco-Turkish War (1897), Greco-Ottoman war, many Muslims celebrated the Ottoman victory as their victory. Uprisings, lockouts, and objections to European colonization in newspapers were reported in Muslim regions after the war.
But Abdul Hamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were not always very effective, due to widespread disaffection within the Empire. In Ottoman Iraq, Mesopotamia and Yemen Vilayet, Yemen, disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Muslim population only by a system of deflation and espionage.
America and the Philippines

In 1898, U.S. United States Secretary of State, Secretary of State John Hay asked United States Minister to the Ottoman Empire Oscar Straus (politician), Oscar Straus to request that Abdul Hamid, in his capacity as caliph, write a letter to the Tausug people, Sulu Muslims, a Moro people, Moro subgroup, of the Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines, ordering them not to join the Moro Rebellion and submit to American suzerainty and American military rule. The Sultan obliged the Americans and wrote the letter, which was sent to Mecca, whence two Sulu chiefs brought it to Sulu. It was successful, since the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."
Despite Abdul Hamid's "pan-Islamic" ideology, he had readily acceded to Straus's request for help in telling the Sulu Muslims to not resist America, since he felt no need to cause hostilities between the West and Muslims.
Collaboration between the American military and Sulu Sultanate was due to the Ottoman Sultan persuading the Sulu Sultan.
John P. Finley wrote:
President McKinley did not mention the Ottoman role in the pacification of the Sulu Moros in his address to the first session of the Fifty-sixth Congress in December 1899, since the agreement with the Sultan of Sulu was not submitted to the Senate until 18 December.
The Bates Treaty, which the Americans signed with the Moro Sulu Sultanate, and which History of Basilan#American occupation, guaranteed the Sultanate's autonomy in its internal affairs and governance, was then Moro Rebellion#Cause of the war, violated by the Americans, who then invaded Moroland,
causing the Moro Rebellion to break out in 1904, with war raging between the Americans and Moro Muslims and atrocities committed against Moro Muslim women and children, such as the Moro Crater Massacre.
Germany's support

The Triple Entente – the United Kingdom, France and Russian Empire, Russia – had strained relations with the Ottoman Empire. Abdul Hamid and his close advisors believed the Empire should be treated as an equal player by these great powers. In the Sultan's view, the Ottoman Empire was a European empire that was distinguished by having more Muslims than Christians.
Over time, the hostile diplomatic attitudes of France (the occupation of Beylik of Tunis, Tunisia in 1881) and Great Britain (the 1882 establishment of de facto control in
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
) caused Abdul Hamid to gravitate towards Germany.
Abdul Hamid twice hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II in Istanbul, on 21 October 1889 and on Wilhelm II's voyage to the Levant in 1898, 5 October 1898. (Wilhelm II later visited Constantinople a third time, on 15 October 1917, as a guest of Mehmed V.) German officers such as Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, Baron von der Goltz and Bodo-Borries von Ditfurth were employed to oversee the organization of the Ottoman Army (1861–1922), Ottoman Army.
German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. The German emperor was also rumored to have counseled Abdul Hamid in his controversial decision to appoint his third son as his successor. Germany's friendship was not altruistic; it had to be fostered by railway and loan concessions. In 1899, a significant German wish, the construction of a Baghdad Railway, Berlin-Baghdad railway, was granted.
Kaiser Wilhelm II also requested the Sultan's help when he had trouble with Chinese Muslim troops. During the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves fought the German Army, routing them and the other Eight Nation Alliance forces. The Muslim Kansu Braves and Boxers defeated the Alliance forces led by the German Captain Guido von Usedom at the Battle of Langfang during the First intervention, Seymour Expedition, China 1900, Seymour Expedition, in 1900, and besieged the trapped Alliance forces during the Siege of the International Legations. It was only on the second attempt, in the Gasalee Expedition, that the Alliance forces managed to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at the Battle of Peking (1900), Battle of Peking. Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested that Abdul Hamid find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to Wilhelm's demands and sent Hasan Enver Pasha (no relation to Enver Pasha, the Young Turk leader) to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.
Because the Ottomans did not want conflict with the European nations and because the Ottoman Empire was ingratiating itself to gain German assistance, an order imploring Chinese Muslims to avoid assisting the Boxers was issued by the Ottoman Khalifa and reprinted in Egyptian and Muslim Indian newspapers.
Opposition
Abdul Hamid II made many enemies in the Ottoman Empire. His reign featured several coup d'état plans and many rebellions. The Sultan triumphed in a challenge by Kâmil Pasha of absolute rule in 1895. A large conspiracy by the
Committee of Union and Progress
The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...
was also foiled in 1896 Ottoman coup d'état attempt, 1896. His ascendancy finally ended in a Young Turk Revolution, revolution in 1908, and his reign for good ended with the 31 March incident, 31 March Incident. These conspiracies were primarily driven by members of inside the Ottoman government, due to dissatisfaction with autocracy. Journalists had to contend with a strict censorship regime, while the intelligentsia chafed under the surveillance of intelligence agencies. It was in this context that a broad opposition movement to the sultan emerged, known as the
Young Turks
The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...
to European observers. Most Young Turks were ambitious military officers, constitutionalists, and bureaucrats of the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or ''Babıali''; ), was a synecdoche or metaphor used to refer collectively to the central government of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. It is particularly referred to the buildi ...
.
With state policy fostering an Islamist Ottomanism, Christian minority groups also began to turn against the government, going so far as to advocate for separatism. By the 1890s, Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Aromanian militant groups started fighting Ottoman authorities, and each other, in the Macedonian Struggle, Macedonian conflict. Using the ''İdare-i Örfiyye'', a clause in the defunct Ottoman constitution comparable to declaring a Martial law and state of emergency in Turkey, state of siege, the government suspended civil rights in the Rumelia, Ottoman Balkans. ''İdare-i Örfiyye'' was also soon declared in Eastern Anatolia Region, Eastern Anatolia to more effectively prosecute Armenian fedayi, fedayi. The statute persisted under the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey until the 1940s.
Educated Muslim women resented the Salafi movement, Salafist ''Hatt-i humayun, Hatts'' that mandated veils be worn outside the home and to be accompanied by men, though these decrees were mostly ignored.
Young Turk Revolution
The national humiliation of the Macedonian Struggle, Macedonian conflict, together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.
The
Committee of Union and Progress
The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...
(CUP), a
Young Turks
The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...
organization that was especially influential in the Rumelian army units, undertook the
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...
in the summer of 1908. Upon learning that the troops in Salonica were marching on Istanbul (23 July), Abdul Hamid capitulated. On 24 July an ''irade'' announced the restoration of the suspended Ottoman constitution of 1876, constitution of 1876; the next day, further ''irades'' abolished espionage and censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners.
On 17 December, Abdul Hamid reopened the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire, General Assembly with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."
Deposition
Abdul Hamid's new attitude did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the state's powerful reactionary elements, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude toward the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909, known as the 31 March Incident, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative upheaval in some parts of the military in the capital overthrew Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha's government. With the Young Turks driven out of the capital, Abdul Hamid appointed Ahmet Tevfik Pasha in his place, and once again suspended the constitution and shuttered the parliament. But the Sultan controlled only Constantinople, while the Unionists were still influential in the rest of the army and provinces. The CUP appealed to Mahmud Şevket Pasha to restore the status quo. Şevket Pasha organized an ''ad hoc'' formation known as the Action Army, which marched on Constantinople. Şevket Pasha's chief of staff was captain Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal. The Action Army stopped first in Yeşilköy, Aya Stefanos, and negotiated with the rival government established by deputies who escaped from the capital, which was led by Talaat Pasha, Mehmed Talat. It was secretly decided there that Abdul Hamid must be deposed. When the Action Army entered Istanbul, a ''fatwa'' was issued condemning Abdul Hamid, and the parliament voted to dethrone him. On 27 April, Abdul Hamid's half-brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as Sultan Mehmed V.
The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as the Adana massacre.
After deposition

Abdul Hamid was conveyed into captivity at Salonica (now Thessaloniki),
mostly at the Villa Allatini in the city's southern outskirts. In 1912, when Salonica fell to Greece, he was returned to captivity in Constantinople. He spent his last days studying, practicing carpentry, and writing his memoirs in custody at Beylerbeyi Palace in the Bosphorus, in the company of his wives and children. He died there in 1918.
In 1930, his nine widows and thirteen children were granted $50 million from his estate after a lawsuit that lasted five years. His estate was worth $1.5 billion.
Abdul Hamid was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire to hold absolute power. He presided over 33 years of decline, during which other European countries regarded the empire as the "sick man of Europe".
Personal life

Abdul Hamid II was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted some high-quality furniture, which can be seen at the
Yıldız Palace
Yıldız Palace (, ) is a vast complex of former imperial Ottoman Empire, Ottoman pavilions and villas in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, Turkey, built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was used as a residence by the List of sultans of the Ottoman ...
, Şale Köşkü, and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. He was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many classic operas. He also composed several opera pieces for the ''Mızıka-yı Hümâyun'' (Ottoman Imperial Band/Orchestra, established by his grandfather Mahmud II who had appointed Giuseppe Donizetti, Donizetti Pasha as its Instructor General in 1828), and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yıldız Palace, which was restored in the 1990s and featured in the 1999 film ''Harem Suare'' (it begins with a scene of Abdul Hamid watching a performance). One of his guests was the French stage actress Sarah Bernhardt, who performed for audiences.
Abdul Hamid was also a good wrestler at Yağlı güreş and a "patron saint" of the wrestlers. He organized wrestling tournaments in the empire, and selected wrestlers were invited to the palace. Abdul Hamid personally tried the sportsmen, and good ones remained in the palace. He was also skilled at drawing, having drawn the sole known portrait of his fourth wife, Bidar Kadın. He was extremely fond of Sherlock Holmes novels,
[Turner, Barry. Suez.1956 pp. 32–33] and awarded their author, Arthur Conan Doyle, the Order of the Medjidie, 2nd-Class, in 1907.
Bilgi University professor Suraiya Farooqi stated that the sultan's "tastes were distinctly Giuseppe Verdi, Verdi" despite his political rule being "conservative".
Paranoia
It was rumored that Abdul Hamid always carried a pistol on his person at all times. In addition to locking the Ottoman Navy in the Golden Horn, he also did not allow the army to train with live ammunition.
Religion
Abdul Hamid practiced traditional Islamic Sufism. He was influenced by the Libyan Shadhili Madani Sheikh, Muhammad Zafir al-Madani, whose lessons he attended in disguise in Unkapani before he became sultan. After he ascended the throne, Abdul Hamid asked al-Madani to return to Istanbul. Al-Madani initiated Shadhili gatherings of remembrance (''dhikr'') in the newly commissioned Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque; on Thursday evenings he accompanied Sufism, Sufi masters in reciting dhikr.
He also became a close religious and political confidant of the sultan. In 1879, the sultan forgave the taxes of all of the Caliphate's Madani Sufi lodges (also known as ''zawiyas'' and ''tekkes''). In 1888, he even established a Sufi lodge for the Madani order of Shadhili Sufism in Istanbul, which he commissioned as part of the Ertuğrul Tekke mosque. The relationship of the sultan and the sheik lasted for 30 years, until the latter's death in 1903.
Poetry

Abdul Hamid wrote poetry, following in the footsteps of many other Ottoman sultans. One of his poems translates thus:
Impressions
In the opinion of F. A. K. Yasamee:
Family
Abdul Hamid had numerous consorts, but allowed none of them to have political influence; in the same way he did not allow his adoptive mother, Rahime Perestu Sultan, or other female members of his family to have such influence, though some of them still had some degree of power in private or in the daily life of the harem. The only, partial exception was
Cemile Sultan
Cemile Sultan (; "''beautiful, radiant''"; 17 August 1843 – 26 February 1915) was an Ottoman dynasty, Ottoman princess, the daughter of Sultan Abdulmejid I and Düzdidil Hanım. She was the half sister of Sultans Murad V, Abdul Hamid II, Mehme ...
, his half-sister and adoptive sister. He was convinced that his predecessors' reigns, especially those of his uncle Abdulaziz, Abdülaziz and his father Abdulmejid I, Abdülmecid I, had been ruined by the excessive meddling of the women of the imperial family in affairs of state.
Consorts
Abdul Hamid had at least 23 consorts:
* Nazikeda Kadın (consort of Abdul Hamid II), Nazikeda Kadın (1848 – 11 April 1895). Kadın (title), BaşKadin (First Consort). She was an Abkhazian princess, born Mediha Hanim, lady-in-waiting to
Cemile Sultan
Cemile Sultan (; "''beautiful, radiant''"; 17 August 1843 – 26 February 1915) was an Ottoman dynasty, Ottoman princess, the daughter of Sultan Abdulmejid I and Düzdidil Hanım. She was the half sister of Sultans Murad V, Abdul Hamid II, Mehme ...
. She died prematurely after years of deep depression, due to the tragic death of her only daughter.
* Nurefsun Kadın, Safinaz Nurefsun Kadın (1850–1915). Her real name was Ayşe and she was the younger sister of the last consort of Abdülmecid I, Abdulmejid I#Consorts, Yıldız Hanım. When Yıldız Hanım married Abdülmecid, Ayşe was sent into the service of Abdülaziz, Şehzade Abdülaziz, where she was renamed Safinaz. According to Harun Açba, Abdülaziz was fascinated by her beauty and wanted to marry her, but she refused because she was in love with Şehzade Abdul Hamid. The feeling was mutual and the young prince asked for the help of his stepmother Rahime Perestu Sultan, Rahime Perestu Kadin. She told Abdülaziz that Safinaz was ill and that she needed a change of air; later, Abdülaziz was informed of her death. Abdul Hamid then secretly married Safinaz, who was renamed Nurefsun, in October 1868. However, she could not get used to life in the Ottoman imperial harem, harem and wanted to be Abdul Hamid's only consort. She then asked for a divorce, which he was granted to her in 1879. She had no children.
* Bedrifelek Kadın (1851–1930). Circassian Princess who took refuge in Istanbul when Russia invaded the Caucasus. She ruled Abdul Hamid's harem when Rahime Perestu Sultan died. She left Abdul Hamid when he was deposed, perhaps disappointed that their son had not been chosen as successor. She had two sons and a daughter.
* Bidar Kadın (5 May 1855 – 13 January 1918). Kabardians, Kabartian princess, she was considered the most beautiful and charming of Abdul Hamid's consorts. She had a son and a daughter.
* Dilpesend Kadın (16 January 1865 – 17 June 1901). Georgians, Georgian. She was educated by Mahmud II#Consorts, Tiryal Hanim, the last consort of Mahmud II, who was Abdul Hamid's grandfather. She had two daughters.
* Mezidemestan Kadın (3 March 1869 – 21 January 1909). She was born Kadriye Kamile Merve Hanim, she was the aunt of Nazikeda Kadın (wife of Mehmed VI), Emine Nazikeda Kadın, future consort of Mehmet VI, Mehmed VI. She was loved by everyone, including his other consorts and her stepchildren. She was the most influential of his consorts, but she never abused her power. She had a son, who was Abdul Hamid's favorite.
* Emsalinur Kadın (1866–1952). She entered the Palace with her sister Tesrid Hanım, who became a consort of Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik. She was very beautiful. She did not follow Abdul Hamid into exile and died in poverty. She had a daughter.
* Müşfika Kadın, Destizer Müşfika Kadın (1872 – 18 July 1961). She was Abkhazian, born Ayşe Hanim. She grew up with her sister under the tutelage of Pertevniyal Sultan, the mother of Sultan Abdulaziz, Abdülaziz, uncle of Abdul Hamid. She followed Abdul Hamid into exile and was with him until his death, so much so that it is said that the sultan died in her arms. She had a daughter.
* Sazkar Hanım (8 May 1873 – 1945). She was a noble Abkhazian, born Fatma Zekiye Hanım. She was among the consorts who followed Abdul Hamid into exile, and later left Turkey with her one daughter.
* Peyveste Hanım (1873 – 1943). Abkhazian princess, born Hatice Rabia Hanim and aunt of Leyla Achba, Leyla Açba. She served Nazikeda Kadın, with her sisters, and then became the treasurer of the harem. She was highly respected. She followed her husband into exile and then her one son.
* Pesend Hanım (13 February 1876 – 5 November 1924). Born princess Fatma Kadriye Achba, she was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite consorts, and was known for her kindness, charity, and tolerance. She was one of the consorts who stayed with Abdul Hamid until his death; and, on his death, she cut her hair and threw it into the sea as a sign of mourning. She had a daughter.
* Behice Hanım (10 October 1882 – 22 October 1969). She was Sazkar Hanım's cousin and her real name was Behiye Hanim. She was arrogant and proud, initially she had to marry Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, son of Abdul Hamid, but in the end the sultan decided to marry her himself, against Behice's will. She had two twin sons.
* Saliha Naciye Kadın (1887–1923). She was born Zeliha Ankuap and was also called Atike Naciye Kadın. Known for her kindness and modesty, she was Abdul Hamid's favorite among the consorts who stayed with him until his death. She had a son and a daughter.
*Dürdane Hanım (1869 - January 1957).
*Calibös Hanım (1890 - 1955).
*Simperver Nazlıyar Hanım.
*Bergüzar Hanım.
*Levandit Hanım.
*Ebru Hanım.
*Sermelek Hanım.
*Gevherriz Hanım.
*Mihrimend Zelide Hanım (? - 1946).
*Nevcedid Hanım.
Sons
Abdul Hamid had at least eight sons:
[Harun Açba (2007). Kadın efendiler: 1839–1924. Profil. ISBN 978-9-759-96109-1.]
* Şehzade Mehmed Selim (11 January 1870 – 5 May 1937) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He did not get along with his father. He had eight consorts, two sons and a daughter.
* Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (16 January 1878 – 16 March 1944) – with Bidar Kadın. He had seven consorts, five sons and two daughters.
* Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (12 February 1878 – 7 August 1944) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He had a consort but no children.
* Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (son of Abdul Hamid II), Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (19 December 1885 – 15 June 1949) – with Mezidemestan Kadın. He had four consorts and two sons.
* Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri, Şehzade Abdürrahim Hayri (15 August 1894 – 1 January 1952) – with Peyveste Hanım. He had two consorts, a son, and a daughter.
* Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (son of Abdul Hamid II), Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (June 22, 1901 – December 1944) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin. He had a consort and a son.
* Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin (22 June 1901 – 13 October 1903) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin. Born in
Yıldız Palace
Yıldız Palace (, ) is a vast complex of former imperial Ottoman Empire, Ottoman pavilions and villas in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, Turkey, built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was used as a residence by the List of sultans of the Ottoman ...
. He died of meningitis and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
* Şehzade Mehmed Abid (May 17, 1905 – December 8, 1973) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. He had two consorts but no children.
Daughters
Abdul Hamid had at least 13 daughters:
* Ulviye Sultan (1868 – 5 October 1875) – with Nazikeda Kadın. Born in Dolmabahçe Palace, she tragically died at the age of seven: while her mother played the piano and the servants were dismissed for their meal, Ulviye Sultan began to play with some matches. Her dress caught fire and her gold belt trapped her inside it, even though her mother burned her hands trying to unhook it. In panic, Nazikeda picked up her daughter and ran down the stairs, screaming for help, but the movement fueled the flames and Ulviye Sultan died burnt alive, leaving her mother in despair from which she never recovered. Nazikeda was buried in the New Mosque (Istanbul), Yeni Cami.
* Zekiye Sultan (12 January 1872 – 13 July 1950) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters. She was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite daughters.
* Naime Sultan, Fatma Naime Sultan (5 September 1876 – 1945) – with Bidar Kadın. She is the favorite daughter of Abdul Hamid, who called her "my accession daughter", because she was born close to the date of his accession to the throne. She married twice and had a son and a daughter. In 1904 she was embroiled in a scandal when she discovered that her first husband was cheating on her with her cousin Hatice Sultan (daughter of Murad V), Hatice Sultan, daughter of Murad V.
* Naile Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid II), Naile Sultan (9 February 1884 – 25 October 1957) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She married once, with no children.
* Seniye Sultan (1884 – 1884) – unknown motherhood.
* Seniha Sultan (1885 – 1885) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She died at five months.
* Şadiye Sultan (30 November 1886 – 20 November 1977) – with Emsalinur Kadın. She married twice and had a daughter.
* Hamide Ayşe Sultan (15 November 1887 – 10 August 1960) – with Müşfika Kadın. She was married twice and had three sons and a daughter.
* Refia Sultan (daughter of Abdul Hamid II), Refia Sultan (15 June 1891 – 1938) – with Sazkar Hanım. She married once and had two daughters.
* Hatice Sultan (10 July 1897 – 14 February 1898) – with Pesend Hanım. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
* Aliye Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown motherhood. She died a few days after her birth.
* Cemile Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown maternity. She died a few days after her birth.
* Samiye Sultan (16 January 1908 – 24 January 1909) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. She died of pneumonia and was buried in the Türbe, mausoleum Şehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
In popular culture
* ''Abdul the Damned (film), Abdul the Damned'' (1935) portrays a time near the end of the sultan's life.
* Barry Unsworth's historical novel ''The Rage of the Vulture'' (1982) portrays the paranoia of Abdul Hamid's at the twilight of his sultanate (May 1908 onwards)
* In Don Rosa's comic book story "The Treasury of Croesus", Scrooge McDuck pulls out a permit which Abdul Hamid II signed in 1905, allowing McDuck ''carte blanche'' to excavate the ancient ruins of Ephesus.
* ''Payitaht Abdulhamid'', named 'The Last Emperor' in English, is a Turkish popular historical television drama series depicting the last 13 years of the reign of Abdul Hamid II.
* In Orhan Pamuk's satirical novel ''Nights of Plague'' (2021), Abdul Hamid dispatches the Ottoman Empire's chief inspector of public health, along with a Muslim epidemiologist and his wife, the sultan's niece, to the fictitious island of Mingheria to combat the bubonic plague.
* ''Civilization V: Brave New World'' features Abdul Hamid II as the leader of the Ottoman Empire during the Scramble for Africa scenario.
Awards and honors
; Ottoman orders
*

Grand Master of the Order of the Crescent
* Grand Master of the Order of Glory (Ottoman Empire), Order of Glory
*

Grand Master of the Order of the Medjidie
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Grand Master of the Order of Osmanieh
; Foreign orders and decorations
* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary, Order of Saint Stephen, in Diamonds, ''1881'' (Austria-Hungary)
*

Knight of the Order of the Elephant, '' 13 December 1884'' (Denmark, Kingdom of Denmark)
*

Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, in Diamonds, ''24 July 1879'' (Sweden, Kingdom of Sweden)
*

Royal Order of Kamehameha I (decoration), Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, ''July 1881'' (Kingdom of Hawaii)
*

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Olav, ''11 February 1885'' (Norway, Kingdom of Norway)
*

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (Kingdom of Portugal)
*

Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, ''19 December 1880'' (Restoration (Spain), Kingdom of Spain)
*

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon, ''1891'' (Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach)
*

Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Saint Alexander (Bulgaria), Order of Saint Alexander, ''1897'' (Principality of Bulgaria)
*

Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I, ''1907'' (Kingdom of Romania)
*

Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, Order of the Annunciation, ''29 November 1881'' (Kingdom of Italy)
*

Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, in Diamonds, ''3 February 1882'' (German Empire)
* Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, ''18 December 1892'' (Siam, Kingdom of Siam)
* Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, ''26 June 1888'' (Empire of Japan)
*

Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert, ''1908'' (Kingdom of Bavaria)
[''Hof- und - Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern'' (1910), "Königliche Orden". p. 8]
Gallery
Threatened by several assassination attempts, Abdul Hamid II did not travel often (though still more than many previous rulers). Photographs provided visual evidence of what took place in his realm. He commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire, including from the Constantinople studio of Jean Pascal Sébah. The sultan presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the U.S.
and Great Britain.
The American collection is housed in the Library of Congress and has been digitized.
File: V.M. Doroshevich-East and War-Eunuch near Door of Sultan's Harem enhaced.jpg, Eunuch near the door of the sultan's harem (from ''East and War'' by Vlas Doroshevich)
File:No 3911 Page 162., Le sultan d'etron'e Abdul-Hamid.jpg, Abdul Hamid II, 1908 (''L'Illustration'')
File:Enver abdulhamit niyazi.jpg, Enver Pasha, Enver Bey, Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Ahmed Niyazi Bey, Niyazi Bey
File: Sultan Dioikitirio Thessaloniki.jpg, Abdul Hamid II arrives in Thessaloniki
File: Istanbul Military museum 3035.jpg, Istanbul Military Museum Abdulhamid II desk
See also
* Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque
* Ottoman invasion of Persia (1906)
* Spyridon Mavrogenis
* Ali Suavi Incident
* Hamidian Period
* Wilhelm II's voyage to the Levant in 1898
References
Citations
Sources
Abdul Hamid II BiographyAll Documents about Abdul Hamid in English from a Turkish Web Site
*
* Overy, Richard. ''The Times Complete History of the World'', HarperCollins (2010)
Further reading
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External links
*
II. Abdul Hamid Forum in English
Ödev Sitesi
– about 1,800 photographs mounted in albums, ca. 1880–1893
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdul Hamid II
Abdul Hamid II,
1842 births
1918 deaths
Dethroned monarchs
19th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
20th-century sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman people of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
Ottoman people of the Greco-Turkish War (1897)
Turks from the Ottoman Empire
People from the Ottoman Empire of Circassian descent
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Sons of sultans
Leaders ousted by a coup
Conservatism in Turkey
Survivors of terrorist attacks