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Exenatide
Exenatide, sold under the brand name Byetta among others, is a medication used to treat type 2 diabetes. It is used together with diet, exercise, and potentially other antidiabetic medication. It is a treatment option after metformin and sulfonylureas. It is given by injection under the skin. Common side effects include low blood sugar, nausea, dizziness, abdominal pain, and pain at the site of injection. Other serious side effects may include medullary thyroid cancer, angioedema, pancreatitis, and kidney injury. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is of unclear safety. Exenatide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 receptor agonist) also known as incretin mimetics. It works by increasing insulin release from the pancreas and decreases excessive glucagon release. Exenatide was approved for medical use in the United States in 2005. In 2019, it was the 312th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Antidiabetic Medication
Drugs used in diabetes treat types of diabetes mellitus by decreasing glucose levels in the blood. With the exception of insulin, most GLP-1 receptor agonists ( liraglutide, exenatide, and others), and pramlintide, all diabetes medications are administered orally and are thus called oral hypoglycemic agents or oral antihyperglycemic agents. There are different classes of hypoglycemic drugs, and selection of the appropriate agent depends on the nature of diabetes, age, and situation of the person, as well as other patient factors. Type 1 diabetes or Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to autoimmune destruction of insulin-secreting pancreatic beta cells or from variable degrees of insulin resistance and deficiency. Chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes can lead to multiorgan damage, resulting in renal, neurologic, cardiovascular, and other serious complications. The treatment for Type 1 diabetes is insulin injection. Type 2 diabetes is t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, also known as GLP-1 analogs, GLP-1RAs, or incretin mimetics, are a class of anorectic drugs that reduce blood sugar and energy intake by activating the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor, GLP-1 receptor. They mimic the actions of the endogenous incretin hormone GLP-1, which is released by the gut after eating. GLP-1 agonists were initially developed for type 2 diabetes. The 2022 American Diabetes Association standards of medical care recommend GLP-1 agonists as a first-line therapy for type 2 diabetes, specifically in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease or obesity. The drugs were also noted to reduce food intake and body weight significantly, and some have been approved to treat obesity and other components of the metabolic syndrome in the absence of diabetes. They are also in development for other indications, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovary syndrome, and diseases of the reward system su ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Incretin
Incretins are a group of metabolic hormones that decrease Blood sugar level, blood glucose levels. Incretins are released after eating and augment the secretion of insulin released from Pancreas, pancreatic beta cells of the islets of Langerhans by a blood glucose, blood-glucose–dependent mechanism. Some incretins (GLP-1) also inhibit glucagon release from the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans. In addition, they slow the rate of absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream by reducing Gastrointestinal physiology, gastric emptying and may reduce food intake. The two main peptides that fulfill criteria for an incretin are the intestinal peptide glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP, also known as: glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide). GIP is produced and secreted into the blood by Enteroendocrine cell#K cell, K cells located in the mucosa of the upper gastrointestinal tract's duodenum and upper jejunum while GLP1 is produced and secrete ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Conformational Isomerism
In chemistry, rotamers are chemical species that differ from one another primarily due to rotations about one or more single bonds. Various arrangements of atoms in a molecule that differ by rotation about single bonds can also be referred to as conformations. Conformers/rotamers differ little in their energies, so they are almost never separable in a practical sense. Rotations about single bonds are subject to small energy barriers. When the time scale for interconversion is long enough for isolation of individual rotamers (usually arbitrarily defined as a half-life of interconversion of 1000 seconds or longer), the species are termed atropisomers (''see:'' atropisomerism). The Ring flip, ring-flip of substituted cyclohexanes constitutes a common form of conformers. The study of the energetics of bond rotation is referred to as conformational analysis. In some cases, conformational analysis can be used to predict and explain product selectivity, mechanisms, and rates of reaction ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Adverse Drug Reaction
An adverse drug reaction (ADR) is a harmful, unintended result caused by taking medication. ADRs may occur following a single dose or prolonged administration of a drug or may result from the combination of two or more drugs. The meaning of this term differs from the term "side effect" because side effects can be beneficial as well as detrimental. The study of ADRs is the concern of the field known as ''pharmacovigilance''. An adverse event (AE) refers to any unexpected and inappropriate occurrence at the time a drug is used, whether or not the event is associated with the administration of the drug. An ADR is a special type of AE in which a causative relationship can be shown. ADRs are only one type of medication-related harm. Another type of medication-related harm type includes not taking prescribed medications, known as non-adherence. Non-adherence to medications can lead to death and other negative outcomes. Adverse drug reactions require the use of a medication. Classific ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sitagliptin
Sitagliptin, sold under the brand name Januvia among others, is an anti-diabetic medication used to treat type 2 diabetes. It is in the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor class and works by increasing the production of insulin and decreasing the production of glucagon by the pancreas. In the United Kingdom it is listed as less preferred than metformin or a sulfonylurea. It is taken by mouth. It is also available in the fixed-dose combination medication sitagliptin/metformin (Janumet, Janumet XR). Common side effects include headaches, swelling of the legs, and upper respiratory tract infections. Serious side effects may include angioedema, low blood sugar, kidney problems, pancreatitis, and joint pain. Whether use in pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe is unclear. Sitagliptin was developed by Merck & Co. and approved for medical use in the United States in 2006. In 2022, it was the 86th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 7 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Insulin Glargine
Insulin glargine sold under the brand name Lantus among others is a long-acting modified form of medical insulin, used in the management of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. It is injected just under the skin. Effects generally begin an hour after use. Common side effects include low blood sugar, problems at the site of injection, itchiness, and weight gain. Other serious side effects include low blood potassium. NPH insulin rather than insulin glargine is generally preferred in pregnancy. After injection, microcrystals slowly release insulin for about 24 hours. This insulin causes body tissues to absorb glucose from the blood and decreases glucose production by the liver. Insulin glargine was patented, but the patent expired in most jurisdictions in 2014. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 2000. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2022, it was the 28th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, wit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glycated Hemoglobin
Glycated hemoglobin, also called glycohemoglobin, is a form of hemoglobin (Hb) that is chemically linked to a sugar. Most monosaccharides, including glucose, galactose, and fructose, spontaneously (that is, non-enzymatically) bond with hemoglobin when they are present in the bloodstream. However, glucose is only 21% as likely to do so as galactose and 13% as likely to do so as fructose, which may explain why glucose is used as the primary metabolic fuel in humans. The formation of excess sugar-hemoglobin linkages indicates the presence of excessive sugar in the bloodstream and is an indicator of diabetes or other hormone diseases in high concentration . A1c is of particular interest because it is easy to detect. The process by which sugars attach to hemoglobin is called glycation and the reference system is based on HbA1c, defined as beta-N-1-deoxy fructosyl hemoglobin as component. There are several ways to measure glycated hemoglobin, of which HbA1c (or simply A1c) is a stand ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Systematic Review
A systematic review is a scholarly synthesis of the evidence on a clearly presented topic using critical methods to identify, define and assess research on the topic. A systematic review extracts and interprets data from published studies on the topic (in the scientific literature), then analyzes, describes, critically appraises and summarizes interpretations into a refined evidence-based conclusion. For example, a systematic review of randomized controlled trials is a way of summarizing and implementing evidence-based medicine. Systematic reviews, sometimes along with meta-analyses, are generally considered the highest level of evidence in medical research. While a systematic review may be applied in the biomedical or health care context, it may also be used where an assessment of a precisely defined subject can advance understanding in a field of research. A systematic review may examine clinical tests, public health interventions, environmental interventions, social ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cochrane (organisation)
Cochrane is a British international charitable organisation formed to synthesize medical research findings to facilitate evidence-based choices about health interventions involving health professionals, patients and policy makers. It includes 53 review groups that are based at research institutions worldwide. Cochrane has over volunteer experts from around the world. The group conducts systematic reviews of healthcare interventions and diagnostic tests and publishes them in the Cochrane Library. While Cochrane reviews typically focus on randomized controlled trials, some reviews, particularly in areas such as public and occupational health, also incorporate other study designs. These may include non-randomised observational studies as well as controlled before–after (CBA) studies and interrupted time-series studies. According to the Library, articles are available via one-click access, though some may require registration or a subscription. History Cochrane, prev ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pioglitazone
Pioglitazone, sold under the brand name Actos among others, is an anti-diabetic medication used to treat type 2 diabetes. It may be used with metformin, a sulfonylurea, or insulin. Use is recommended together with exercise and diet. It is not recommended in type 1 diabetes. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include headaches, muscle pains, inflammation of the throat, and swelling. Serious side effects may include bladder cancer, low blood sugar, heart failure, and osteoporosis. Use is not recommended in pregnancy or breastfeeding. It is in the thiazolidinedione (TZD) class and works by improving sensitivity of tissues to insulin. Pioglitazone was patented in 1985, and came into medical use in 1999. It is available as a generic medication. In 2022, it was the 120th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions. It was withdrawn in France and Germany in 2011. Medical uses Pioglitazone is used to lower blood glucose lev ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Thiazolidinediones
The thiazolidinediones , abbreviated as TZD, also known as glitazones after the prototypical drug ciglitazone, are a class of heterocyclic compounds consisting of a five-membered C3NS ring. The term usually refers to a family of drugs used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 that were introduced in the late 1990s. As of 2024, there are two FDA-approved drugs in this class, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. Mechanism of action Thiazolidinediones or TZDs act by activating PPARs (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors), a group of nuclear receptors, specific for '' PPARγ'' (PPAR-gamma, PPARG). They are thus the PPARG agonists subset of PPAR agonists. The endogenous ligands for these receptors are free fatty acids (FFAs) and eicosanoids. When activated, the receptor binds to DNA in complex with the retinoid X receptor (RXR), another nuclear receptor, increasing transcription of a number of specific genes and decreasing transcription of others. The main effect ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
