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Carbohydrate-responsive Element-binding Protein
Carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein (ChREBP) also known as MLX-interacting protein-like (MLXIPL) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''MLXIPL'' gene. The protein name derives from the protein's interaction with carbohydrate response element sequences of DNA. Function This gene encodes a basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription factor of the Myc / Max / Mad superfamily. This protein forms a heterodimeric complex and binds and activates, in a glucose-dependent manner, carbohydrate response element (ChoRE) motifs in the promoters of triglyceride synthesis genes. ChREBP is activated by glucose, independent of insulin. In adipose tissue, ChREBP induces de novo lipogenesis from glucose in response to a glucose flux into adipocytes. In the liver, glucose induction of ChREBP promotes glycolysis and lipogenesis. Clinical significance This gene is deleted in Williams-Beuren syndrome, a multisystem developmental disorder caused by the deletion of con ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, Cell signaling, responding to stimuli, providing Cytoskeleton, structure to cells and Fibrous protein, organisms, and Intracellular transport, transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the Nucleic acid sequence, nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific Protein structure, 3D structure that determines its activity. A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide. Short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called pep ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and unexplained weight loss. Other symptoms include increased hunger, having a sensation of pins and needles, and sores (wounds) that heal slowly. Symptoms often develop slowly. Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, stroke, diabetic retinopathy, which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the lower limbs, which may lead to amputations. A sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon. Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise. Some people are genetically more at risk than others. Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90% of cases of diabetes, with the other 10% due primar ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Xylulose-5-phosphate
D-Xylulose 5-phosphate (D-xylulose-5-P) is an intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway. It is a ketose sugar formed from ribulose-5-phosphate by ribulose-5-phosphate epimerase. In the non-oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway, xylulose-5-phosphate acts as a donor of two-carbon ketone groups in transketolase reactions. Xylulose-5-phosphate also plays a crucial role in the regulation of glycolysis through its interaction with the bifunctional enzyme PFK2/FBPase2. Specifically, it activates protein phosphatase, which then dephosphorylates PFK2/FBPase2. This inactivates the FBPase2 activity of the bifunctional enzyme and activates its PFK2 activity. As a result, the production of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate increases, ultimately leading to an upregulation of glycolysis. Although previously thought of mainly as an intermediary in the pentose phosphate pathway, recent research reported that the sugar also has a role in gene expression, mainly by promoting the ChREBP trans ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
PP2A
Protein phosphatase 2 (PP2), also known as PP2A, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''PPP2CA'' gene. The PP2A heterotrimeric protein phosphatase is ubiquitously expressed, accounting for a large fraction of phosphatase activity in eukaryotic cells. Its serine/threonine phosphatase activity has a broad substrate specificity and diverse cellular functions. Among the targets of PP2A are proteins of oncogenic signaling cascades, such as Raf, MEK, and AKT, where PP2A may act as a tumor suppressor. Structure and function PP2A consists of a dimeric core enzyme composed of the structural A and catalytic C subunits, and a regulatory B subunit. When the PP2A catalytic C subunit associates with the A and B subunits several species of holoenzymes are produced with distinct functions and characteristics. The A subunit, a founding member of the HEAT repeat protein family (huntingtin, EF3, PP2A, TOR1), is the scaffold required for the formation of the heterotrimeric compl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
MLX (gene)
Max-like protein X is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''MLX'' gene. Function The product of this gene belongs to the family of basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper (bHLH-Zip) transcription factors. These factors form heterodimers with Mad proteins and play a role in proliferation, determination and differentiation. This gene product may act to diversify Mad family function by its restricted association with a subset of the Mad family of transcriptional repressors, namely Mad1 and Mad4. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified for this gene. Interactions MLX (gene) has been shown to interact with MNT, MXD1 and MLXIPL. MLX must dimerize In chemistry, dimerization is the process of joining two identical or similar Molecular entity, molecular entities by Chemical bond, bonds. The resulting bonds can be either strong or weak. Many symmetrical chemical species are described as dim ... with MondoA or with MLXIP ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Apoptosis
Apoptosis (from ) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemistry, Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (Morphology (biology), morphology) and death. These changes include Bleb (cell biology), blebbing, Plasmolysis, cell shrinkage, Karyorrhexis, nuclear fragmentation, Pyknosis, chromatin condensation, Apoptotic DNA fragmentation, DNA fragmentation, and mRNA decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 1,000,000,000, billion cells each day due to apoptosis. For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells. In contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lipotoxicity
Lipotoxicity is a metabolic syndrome that results from the accumulation of lipid intermediates in non-adipose tissue, leading to cellular dysfunction and death. The tissues normally affected include the kidneys, liver, heart and skeletal muscle. Lipotoxicity is believed to have a role in heart failure, obesity, and diabetes, and is estimated to affect approximately 25% of the adult American population. Cause In normal cellular operations, there is a balance between the production of lipids, and their oxidation or transport. In lipotoxic cells, there is an imbalance between the amount of lipids produced and the amount used. Upon entrance of the cell, fatty acids can be converted to different types of lipids for storage. Triacylglycerol consists of three fatty acids bound to a glycerol molecule and is considered the most neutral and harmless type of intracellular lipid storage. Alternatively, fatty acids can be converted to lipid intermediates like diacylglycerol, ceramides and fatt ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beta Cell
Beta cells (β-cells) are specialized endocrine cells located within the pancreatic islets of Langerhans responsible for the production and release of insulin and amylin. Constituting ~50–70% of cells in human islets, beta cells play a vital role in maintaining blood glucose levels. Problems with beta cells can lead to disorders such as diabetes. Function The function of beta cells is primarily centered around the synthesis and secretion of hormones, particularly insulin and amylin. Both hormones work to keep blood glucose levels within a narrow, healthy range by different mechanisms. Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells, allowing them to use it for energy or store it for future use. Amylin helps regulate the rate at which glucose enters the bloodstream after a meal, slowing down the absorption of nutrients by inhibit gastric emptying. Insulin synthesis Beta cells are the only site of insulin synthesis in mammals. As glucose stimulates insulin secretion, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pancreas
The pancreas (plural pancreases, or pancreata) is an Organ (anatomy), organ of the Digestion, digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity, abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, i.e., it has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function. Ninety-nine percent of the pancreas is exocrine and 1% is endocrine. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, fats in food entering the duodenum from the stomach. Inflammation of the pancreas is kno ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sterol Regulatory Element-binding Protein 1
Sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1 (SREBF1) also known as sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''SREBF1'' gene. This gene is located within the Smith–Magenis syndrome region on chromosome 17. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene. The isoforms are SREBP-1a and SREBP-1c (the latter also called ADD-1). SREBP-1a is expressed in the intestine and spleen, whereas SREBP-1c is mainly expressed in liver, muscle, and fat (among other tissues). Expression The proteins encoded by this gene are transcription factors that bind to a sequence in the Promoter (biology), promoter of different genes, called sterol regulatory element-1 (SRE1). This element is a decamer (oligomer with ten subunits) flanking the LDL receptor gene and other genes involved in, for instance, sterol biosynthesis. The protein is synthesized as a precursor that is attached to the nuclear m ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
De Novo Synthesis
In chemistry, ''de novo'' synthesis () is the synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules such as sugars or amino acids, as opposed to recycling after partial degradation. For example, nucleotides are not needed in the diet as they can be constructed from small precursor molecules such as formate and aspartate. Methionine, on the other hand, is needed in the diet because while it can be degraded to and then regenerated from homocysteine, it cannot be synthesized ''de novo''. Nucleotide ''De novo'' pathways of nucleotides do not use free bases: adenine (abbreviated as A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), or uracil (U). The purine ring is built up one atom or a few atoms at a time and attached to ribose throughout the process. Pyrimidine ring is synthesized as orotate and attached to ribose phosphate and later converted to common pyrimidine nucleotides. Cholesterol Cholesterol is an essential structural component of animal cell membranes. Cholesterol a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
