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Find-me Signals
Cells destined for apoptosis release molecules referred to as find-me signals. These signal molecules are used to attract Phagocyte, phagocytes which engulf and eliminate damaged cells. Find-me signals are typically released by the apoptotic cells while the cell membrane remains intact. This ensures that the phagocytic cells are able to remove the dying cells before their membranes are compromised. A leaky membrane leads to secondary necrosis which may cause additional inflammation, therefore, it is best to remove dying cells before this occurs. One cell is capable of releasing multiple find-me signals. Should a cell lack the ability to release its find-me signal, other cells may release additional find-me signals to overcome the discrepancy. Inflammation can be suppressed by find-me signals during cell clearance. A phagocyte may also be able to engulf more material or enhance its ability to engulf materials when stimulated by find-me signals. A wide range of molecules, from cellula ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Apoptosis
Apoptosis (from ) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemistry, Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (Morphology (biology), morphology) and death. These changes include Bleb (cell biology), blebbing, Plasmolysis, cell shrinkage, Karyorrhexis, nuclear fragmentation, Pyknosis, chromatin condensation, Apoptotic DNA fragmentation, DNA fragmentation, and mRNA decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 1,000,000,000, billion cells each day due to apoptosis. For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells. In contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Uridine Triphosphate
Uridine-5′-triphosphate (UTP) is a pyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate, consisting of the organic base uracil linked to the 1′ carbon of the ribose sugar, and esterified with tri-phosphoric acid at the 5′ position. Its main role is as substrate for the synthesis of RNA during transcription. UTP is the precursor for the production of CTP via CTP synthetase. UTP can be biosynthesized from UDP by Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinase after using the phosphate group from ATP. UDP + ATP ⇌ UTP + ADP; both UTP and ATP are energetically equal. The homologue in DNA is thymidine triphosphate (TTP or dTTP). UTP also has a deoxyribose form (dUTP). Role in metabolism UTP also has the role of a source of energy or an activator of substrates in metabolic reactions, like that of ATP, but more specific. When UTP activates a substrate (such as glucose-1-phosphate), UDP-glucose is formed and inorganic phosphate is released. UDP-glucose enters the synthesis of glycogen. UTP is used in the meta ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Chemokinesis
Chemokinesis is chemically prompted kinesis, a motile response of unicellular prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms to chemicals that cause the cell to make some kind of change in their migratory/swimming behaviour. Changes involve an increase or decrease of speed, alterations of amplitude or frequency of motile character, or direction of migration. However, in contrast to chemotaxis Chemotaxis (from ''chemical substance, chemo-'' + ''taxis'') is the movement of an organism or entity in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell organism, single-cell or multicellular organisms direct thei ..., chemokinesis has a random, non-vectorial moiety, in general. Due to the random character, techniques dedicated to evaluate chemokinesis are partly different from methods used in chemotaxis research. One of the most valuable ways to measure chemokinesis is computer-assisted (see, e.g., Image J) checker-board analysis, which provides data about migratio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Chemotaxis
Chemotaxis (from ''chemical substance, chemo-'' + ''taxis'') is the movement of an organism or entity in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell organism, single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (e.g., glucose) by swimming toward the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (e.g., phenol). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical to early development (e.g., movement of sperm towards the egg during fertilization) and development (e.g., migration of neurons or lymphocytes) as well as in normal function and health (e.g., migration of White blood cell, leukocytes during injury or infection). In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis, and the aberrant change of the overall property of these networks, which contro ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Jurkat Cells
Jurkat cells are an immortalized line of human T lymphocyte cells that are used to study acute T cell leukemia, T cell signaling, and the expression of various chemokine receptors susceptible to viral entry, particularly HIV. Jurkat cells can, upon stimulation by phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) or other stimulants such as phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA or simply phorbol), express interleukin 2, and are used in research involving the susceptibility of cancers to drugs and radiation. However in the general case chronic phytohaemagglutinin kills Jurkat cells, though Jurkat clones can be devised which resist PHA-induced killing. The object of the system is that Jurkat cells can react to a signal and their expression can be measured. Jurkat cells with elements missing or knocked out can then provide a basis for examining the importance of that element on the expression of interleukin 2. History The Jurkat cell line (originally called JM) was established in the mid-1970s from the perip ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Burkitt Lymphoma
Burkitt's lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, particularly B lymphocytes found in the germinal center. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, the Irish surgeon who first described the disease in 1958 while working in equatorial Africa. It is a highly aggressive form of cancer which often, but not always, manifests after a person develops acquired immunodeficiency from infection with Epstein–Barr virus, Epstein-Barr Virus or HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The overall cure rate for Burkitt's lymphoma in developed countries is about 90%. Burkitt's lymphoma is uncommon in adults, in whom it has a worse prognosis. Classification Burkitt lymphoma can be divided into three main clinical variants: the endemic, the Sporadic cancer, sporadic, and the immunodeficiency-associated variants. By morphology (biology), morphology (i.e., microscopic appearance), immunophenotype, and genetics, the variants of Burkitt lymphoma are alike. * The endemic variant (also called " ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Microparticle
Microparticles are particles between 0.1 and 100 μm in size. Commercially available microparticles are available in a wide variety of materials, including ceramics, glass, polymers, and metals. Microparticles encountered in daily life include pollen, sand, dust, flour, and powdered sugar. The study of microparticles has been called micromeritics, although this term is not very common. Microparticles have a much larger surface-to-volume ratio than at the macroscale, and thus their behavior can be quite different. For example, metal microparticles can be explosive in air. Microspheres are spherical microparticles, and are used where consistent and predictable particle surface area is important. In biological systems, a microparticle is synonymous with a microvesicle, a type of extracellular vesicle (EV). Applications Home pregnancy tests make use of gold microparticles. Many applications are also listed in the microsphere article. A recent study showed that infused, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
SPHK2
Sphingosine kinase 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''SPHK2'' gene. This gene encodes one of two sphingosine kinase isozymes that catalyze the phosphorylation of sphingosine into sphingosine 1-phosphate. Sphingosine 1-phosphate mediates many cellular processes including migration, proliferation and apoptosis, and also plays a role in several types of cancer by promoting angiogenesis and tumorigenesis Carcinogenesis, also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. The process is characterized by changes at the cellular, genetic, and epigenetic levels and abn .... The encoded protein may play a role in breast cancer proliferation and chemoresistance. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding multiple isoforms have been observed for this gene. The researchers also found that the expression of sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2) and the secretion of sphingosine-1-phosphate ( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sphingosine Kinase 1
Sphingosine kinase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''SPHK1'' gene. Sphingosine kinase 1 phosphorylates sphingosine to sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). SK1 is normally a cytosolic protein but is recruited to membranes rich in phosphatidate (PA), a product of phospholipase D (PLD). Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a novel lipid messenger with both intracellular and extracellular functions. Intracellularly, it regulates proliferation and survival, and extracellularly, it is a ligand for EDG1. Various stimuli increase cellular levels of S1P by activation of sphingosine kinase (SPHK), the enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of sphingosine. Competitive inhibitors of SPHK block formation of S1P and selectively inhibit cellular proliferation induced by a variety of factors, including platelet-derived growth factor and serum. Interactions SPHK1 has been shown to interact with TRAF2 TNF receptor-associated factor 2 is a protein that in humans is encode ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
G Protein-coupled Receptor
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptors, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), form a large group of evolutionarily related proteins that are cell surface receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate cellular responses. They are coupled with G proteins. They pass through the cell membrane seven times in the form of six loops (three extracellular loops interacting with ligand molecules, three intracellular loops interacting with G proteins, an N-terminal extracellular region and a C-terminal intracellular region) of amino acid residues, which is why they are sometimes referred to as seven-transmembrane receptors. Text was copied from this source, which is available under Attribution 2.5 Generic (CC BY 2.5) licence/ref> Ligands can bind either to the extracellular N-terminus and loops (e.g. glutamate receptors) or to the binding site wi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Caspase 1
Caspase-1/Interleukin-1 converting enzyme (ICE) is an evolutionarily conserved enzyme that proteolysis, proteolytically cleaves other proteins, such as the Protein precursor, precursors of the inflammatory cytokines Interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 1β and interleukin 18 as well as the pyroptosis inducer Gasdermin D, into active mature peptides. It plays a central role in cell immunity as an inflammatory response initiator. Once activated through formation of an inflammasome complex, it initiates a proinflammatory response through the cleavage and thus activation of the two inflammatory cytokines, Interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18) as well as pyroptosis, a programmed lytic cell death pathway, through cleavage of Gasdermin D. The two inflammatory cytokines activated by Caspase-1 are excreted from the cell to further induce the inflammatory response in neighboring cells. Cellular expression Caspase-1 is evolutionarily conserved in many eukaryot ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
THP-1 Cell Line
THP-1 is a human monocyte, monocytic cell line derived from an acute monocytic leukemia patient. It is used to test leukemia cell lines in immunocytochemistry, immunocytochemical analysis of protein-protein interactions, and immunohistochemistry. Characteristics Although THP-1 cells are of the same lineage, mutations can cause differences as the progeny proliferates. In general, THP-1 cells exhibit a large, round, single-cell morphology. The cells were derived from the peripheral blood of a 1-year-old human male with acute monocytic leukemia. Some of their characteristics are: * Expression of Fc receptor and C3b receptors while lacking surface and cytoplasmic immunoglobulins. * Production of Interleukin 1, IL-1. * Positive detection of alpha-naphthyl butyrate esterase and lysozymes * phagocytose, Phagocytic physiology (both for latex beads and sensitized erythrocytes). * Restoration of the response of purified T lymphocytes to Con A. * Increased carbon dioxide, CO2 production on ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
