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Excimer Laser
An excimer laser, sometimes more correctly called an exciplex laser, is a form of ultraviolet laser which is commonly used in the production of microelectronic devices, semiconductor based integrated circuits or "chips", eye surgery, and micromachining. Since the 1960s, excimer lasers have been widely used in high-resolution photolithography machines, one of the critical technologies required for microelectronic chip manufacturing. Terminology and history The term excimer is short for 'excited dimer', while 'exciplex' is short for 'excited complex'. Most excimer lasers are of the noble gas halide type, for which the term ''excimer'' is, strictly speaking, a misnomer. (Although less commonly used, the proper term for such is an exciplex laser.) Excimer laser was proposed in 1960 by Fritz Houtermans. The excimer laser development started with the observation of a nascent spectral line narrowing at 176 nm reported in 1971 by Nikolai Basov, V. A. Danilychev and Yu. M ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Excimer Laser 1
An excimer (originally short for excited dimer) is a short-lived polyatomic molecule formed from two species that do not form a stable molecule in the ground state. In this case, formation of molecules is possible only if such atom is in an electronic excited state. Heteronuclear molecules and molecules that have more than two species are also called exciplex molecules (originally short for excited complex). Excimers are often diatomic and are composed of two atoms or molecules that would not bond if both were in the ground state. The lifetime of an excimer is very short, on the order of nanoseconds. Formation and decay Under the molecular orbital formalism, a typical ground-state molecule has electrons in the lowest possible energy levels. According to the Pauli principle, at most two electrons can occupy a given orbital, and if an orbital contains two electrons they must be in opposite spin states. The highest occupied molecular orbital is called the HOMO and the lowest unocc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lebedev Physical Institute
The Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (LPI RAS or just LPI) (in ), situated in Moscow, is a Russian research institute specializing in physics. The institute was established in its present shape in 1934 by academician Sergey Vavilov. It moved to Moscow and was named after a Russian physicist Pyotr Lebedev the same year. It is also known as P. N. Lebedev Institute of Physics or just Lebedev Institute. In Russian it is often referred to by the acronym FIAN (ФИАН) standing for "Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences". The range of the research activities includes: laser technology, dark matter structure, nanostructures, superconductivity, cosmic rays, and gamma-astronomy. The institute developed a technique of crystallizing cubic zirconia (which was called '' Fianit'' in Russia, named after FIAN). Directors of the Institute # Sergey Vavilov (1934–1951) # Dmitri Skobeltsyn (1951–1972) # Nikolay Basov (1973–1988) # Leonid Ke ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Argon
Argon is a chemical element; it has symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abundant as water vapor (which averages about 4000 ppmv, but varies greatly), 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide (400 ppmv), and more than 500 times as abundant as neon (18 ppmv). Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earth's crust, comprising 0.00015% of the crust. Nearly all argon in Earth's atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in Earth's crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, as it is the most easily produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas. The name "argon" is derived from the Greek word , neuter singular form of meaning 'lazy' or 'inactive', as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete oc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Laser Construction
A laser is constructed from three principal parts: *An energy source (usually referred to as the ''Laser pumping, pump'' or ''pump source''), *A ''gain medium'' or ''Active laser medium, laser medium'', and *Two or more mirrors that form an ''optical resonator''. Pump source The ''pump source'' is the part that provides energy to the laser system. Examples of pump sources include electrical discharges, flashlamps, arc lamps, light from another laser, chemical reactions and even explosive devices. The type of pump source used principally depends on the ''gain medium'', and this also determines how the energy is transmitted to the medium. A helium–neon laser, helium–neon (HeNe) laser uses an electrical discharge in the helium-neon gas mixture, a Nd:YAG laser uses either light focused from a xenon flash lamp or Laser diode, diode lasers, and excimer lasers use a chemical reaction. Gain medium / Laser medium The ''gain medium'' is the major determining factor of the waveleng ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nike Laser Amplifier
Nike often refers to: * Nike, Inc., a major American producer of athletic shoes, apparel, and sports equipment * Nike (mythology), a Greek goddess who personifies victory Nike may also refer to: People * Nike (name), a surname and feminine given name *Nike, daughter of Shahrbaraz Arts, entertainment, and media * Nike Award, a Polish language literature prize * The ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'', also known as the ''Niké of Samothrace'', an ancient statue of the goddess Nike * Nike of Callimachus, an ancient statue of the goddess Nike * Nike of Paionios, a statue of Nike from Olympia, Greece * Nike of Paros, a sculpture from Paros * Nike of Megara, statue from Megara * Nike of Epidaurus, a temple akroterion * Nike (Hadrian's Library), found in Hadrian's Library * Nike of Marathon, a modern bronze statue of the goddess * Nike Fixing her Sandal, a marble relief from the Acropolis of Athens * Nike Assists the Wounded Warrior, modern sculpture in Germany * Nike Instructs the Bo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Naval Research Laboratory
The United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is the corporate research laboratory for the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. Located in Washington, DC, it was founded in 1923 and conducts basic scientific research, applied research, technological development and prototyping. The laboratory's specialties include plasma physics, space physics, materials science, and tactical electronic warfare. NRL is one of the first US government scientific R&D laboratories, having opened in 1923 at the instigation of Thomas Edison, and is currently under the Office of Naval Research. As of 2016, NRL was a United States Navy Working Capital Fund, Navy Working Capital Fund activity, which means it is not a line-item in the US Federal Budget. Instead of direct funding from Congress, all costs, including overhead, were recovered through sponsor-funded research projects. NRL's research expenditures were approximately $1 billion per year. Research The Naval Research L ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Northrop Grumman
Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American multinational Aerospace manufacturer, aerospace and Arms industry, defense company. With 97,000 employees and an annual revenue in excess of $40 billion, it is one of the world's largest Arms industry, weapons manufacturers and military technology providers. Formed in 1994 through Northrop Corporation's purchase of Grumman Aerospace, Northrop Grumman ranked as the List of defense contractors, third-largest defense contractor in the world as of 2022. The firm ranked on the 2022 Fortune 500, ''Fortune'' 500 list of America's largest corporations. Northrop Grumman and its industry partners have won the Collier Trophy nine times, most recently for the development and production of the James Webb Space Telescope, an Space telescope, orbiting observatory launched in 2021. Northrop Grumman leads the development of the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider, B-21 Raider, a long-range, stealth aircraft, stealth strategic bomber that can drop conv ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bromine
Bromine is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Br and atomic number 35. It is a volatile red-brown liquid at room temperature that evaporates readily to form a similarly coloured vapour. Its properties are intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. Isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig (in 1825) and Antoine Jérôme Balard (in 1826), its name was derived , referring to its sharp and pungent smell. Elemental bromine is very reactive and thus does not occur as a free element in nature. Instead, it can be isolated from colourless soluble crystalline mineral halide Ionic salt, salts analogous to table salt, a property it shares with the other halogens. While it is rather rare in the Earth's crust, the high solubility of the bromide ion (Br) has caused its Bromine cycle, accumulation in the oceans. Commercially the element is easily extracted from brine evaporation ponds, mostly in the United States and Israel. The mass of bromine in the oce ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Halogen
The halogens () are a group in the periodic table consisting of six chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and the radioactive elements astatine (At) and tennessine (Ts), though some authors would exclude tennessine as its chemistry is unknown and is theoretically expected to be more like that of gallium. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17. The word "halogen" means "salt former" or "salt maker". When halogens react with metals, they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride (common table salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide. The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in three of the main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure, though not far above room temperature the same becomes true of groups 1 and 15, assuming white phosphorus is taken as the standard state.This could also be the case for group 12, al ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Noble Gas
The noble gases (historically the inert gases, sometimes referred to as aerogens) are the members of Group (periodic table), group 18 of the periodic table: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn) and, in some cases, oganesson (Og). Under Standard temperature and pressure, standard conditions, the first six of these Chemical element, elements are odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity and cryogenics, cryogenic boiling points. The properties of oganesson are uncertain. The intermolecular force between noble gas atoms is the very weak London dispersion force, so their boiling points are all cryogenic, below . The noble gases' Chemically inert, inertness, or tendency not to Chemical reaction, react with other chemical substances, results from their electron configuration: their Electron shell, outer shell of valence electrons is "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions. Only a few hun ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mani Lal Bhaumik
Mani Lal Bhaumik (born 30 March 1931) is an Indian American physicist and an internationally bestselling author, celebrated lecturer, entrepreneur and philanthropist. Early life Mani Lal Bhaumik was born in a Bengali Mahishya family on 30 March 1931 in a small village in Tamluk and attended the Kola Union High School. His father Gunodhar Bhaumik was a notable freedom fighter. As a teenager, Bhaumik spent some time with Mahatma Gandhi in his Mahisadal camp. In his boyhood Mani Lal was hugely influenced by freedom fighter Matangini Hazra, popularly known as Old Lady Gandhi. He received a B.Sc. degree from Scottish Church College and an M.Sc. degree from the Rajabazar Science College campus of University of Calcutta. He won the attention of Satyendra Nath Bose (creator of the Bose–Einstein statistics) who encouraged his prodigious curiosity. Bhaumik became the first student to receive a doctorate from the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur when he received his Ph.D. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Electron
The electron (, or in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary charge, elementary electric charge. It is a fundamental particle that comprises the ordinary matter that makes up the universe, along with up quark, up and down quark, down quarks. Electrons are extremely lightweight particles that orbit the positively charged atomic nucleus, nucleus of atoms. Their negative charge is balanced by the positive charge of protons in the nucleus, giving atoms their overall electric charge#Charge neutrality, neutral charge. Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, each consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a number of orbiting electrons equal to the number of protons. The configuration and energy levels of these orbiting electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom. Electrons are bound to the nucleus to different degrees. The outermost or valence electron, valence electrons are the least tightly bound and are responsible for th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
