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Elliptic Curves
In mathematics, an elliptic curve is a Smoothness, smooth, Projective variety, projective, algebraic curve of Genus of an algebraic curve, genus one, on which there is a specified point . An elliptic curve is defined over a field (mathematics), field and describes points in , the Cartesian product of with itself. If the field's characteristic (algebra), characteristic is different from 2 and 3, then the curve can be described as a plane algebraic curve which consists of solutions for: :y^2 = x^3 + ax + b for some coefficients and in . The curve is required to be Singular point of a curve, non-singular, which means that the curve has no cusp (singularity), cusps or Self-intersection, self-intersections. (This is equivalent to the condition , that is, being square-free polynomial, square-free in .) It is always understood that the curve is really sitting in the projective plane, with the point being the unique point at infinity. Many sources define an elliptic curve to be ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cubic Plane Curve
In mathematics, a cubic plane curve is a plane algebraic curve defined by a cubic equation : applied to homogeneous coordinates for the projective plane; or the inhomogeneous version for the affine space determined by setting in such an equation. Here is a non-zero linear combination of the third-degree monomials : These are ten in number; therefore the cubic curves form a projective space of dimension 9, over any given field . Each point imposes a single linear condition on , if we ask that pass through . Therefore, we can find some cubic curve through any nine given points, which may be degenerate, and may not be unique, but will be unique and non-degenerate if the points are in general position; compare to two points determining a line and how five points determine a conic. If two cubics pass through a given set of nine points, then in fact a pencil of cubics does, and the points satisfy additional properties; see Cayley–Bacharach theorem. A cubic curve may ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC allows smaller keys to provide equivalent security, compared to cryptosystems based on modular exponentiation in Galois fields, such as the RSA cryptosystem and ElGamal cryptosystem. Elliptic curves are applicable for key agreement, digital signatures, pseudo-random generators and other tasks. Indirectly, they can be used for encryption by combining the key agreement with a symmetric encryption scheme. They are also used in several integer factorization algorithms that have applications in cryptography, such as Lenstra elliptic-curve factorization. History The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor S. Miller in 1985. Elliptic curve cryptography algorithms entered wide use in 2004 to 2005. In 1999, NIST recommended fifteen elliptic curves. Specifically, FIPS 186 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Wiles's Proof Of Fermat's Last Theorem
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a proof by British mathematician Sir Andrew Wiles of a special case of the modularity theorem for elliptic curves. Together with Ribet's theorem, it provides a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem. Both Fermat's Last Theorem and the modularity theorem were believed to be impossible to prove using previous knowledge by almost all living mathematicians at the time. Wiles first announced his proof on 23 June 1993 at a lecture in Cambridge entitled "Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves and Galois Representations". However, in September 1993 the proof was found to contain an error. One year later on 19 September 1994, in what he would call "the most important moment of isworking life", Wiles stumbled upon a revelation that allowed him to correct the proof to the satisfaction of the mathematical community. The corrected proof was published in 1995. Wiles's proof uses many techniques from algebraic geometry and number theory and has many ramificatio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Number Theory
Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic functions. Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of mathematical objects constructed from integers (for example, rational numbers), or defined as generalizations of the integers (for example, algebraic integers). Integers can be considered either in themselves or as solutions to equations (Diophantine geometry). Questions in number theory can often be understood through the study of Complex analysis, analytical objects, such as the Riemann zeta function, that encode properties of the integers, primes or other number-theoretic objects in some fashion (analytic number theory). One may also study real numbers in relation to rational numbers, as for instance how irrational numbers can be approximated by fractions (Diophantine approximation). Number theory is one of the oldest branches of mathematics alongside geometry. One quirk of number theory is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Group Isomorphism
In abstract algebra, a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets up a bijection between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called isomorphic. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished. Definition and notation Given two groups (G, *) and (H, \odot), a ''group isomorphism'' from (G, *) to (H, \odot) is a bijective group homomorphism from G to H. Spelled out, this means that a group isomorphism is a bijective function f : G \to H such that for all u and v in G it holds that f(u * v) = f(u) \odot f(v). The two groups (G, *) and (H, \odot) are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism from one to the other. This is written (G, *) \cong (H, \odot). Often shorter and simpler notations can be used. When the relevant group operations are understood, they are omitted and one writes G \co ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Complex Projective Plane
In mathematics, the complex projective plane, usually denoted or is the two-dimensional complex projective space. It is a complex manifold of complex dimension 2, described by three complex coordinates :(Z_1,Z_2,Z_3) \in \C^3, \qquad (Z_1,Z_2,Z_3)\neq (0,0,0) where, however, the triples differing by an overall rescaling are identified: :(Z_1,Z_2,Z_3) \equiv (\lambda Z_1,\lambda Z_2, \lambda Z_3); \quad \lambda \in \C, \qquad \lambda \neq 0. That is, these are homogeneous coordinates in the traditional sense of projective geometry. Topology The Betti numbers of the complex projective plane are :1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, ..... The middle dimension 2 is accounted for by the homology class of the complex projective line, or Riemann sphere, lying in the plane. The nontrivial homotopy groups of the complex projective plane are \pi_2=\pi_5=\mathbb. The fundamental group is trivial and all other higher homotopy groups are those of the 5-sphere, i.e. torsion. Algebraic geometry In ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Torus
In geometry, a torus (: tori or toruses) is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space one full revolution about an axis that is coplanarity, coplanar with the circle. The main types of toruses include ring toruses, horn toruses, and spindle toruses. A ring torus is sometimes colloquially referred to as a donut or doughnut. If the axis of revolution does not touch the circle, the surface has a ring shape and is called a torus of revolution, also known as a ring torus. If the axis of revolution is tangent to the circle, the surface is a horn torus. If the axis of revolution passes twice through the circle, the surface is a Lemon (geometry), spindle torus (or ''self-crossing torus'' or ''self-intersecting torus''). If the axis of revolution passes through the center of the circle, the surface is a degenerate torus, a double-covered sphere. If the revolved curve is not a circle, the surface is called a ''toroid'', as in a square toroid. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Complex Number
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the form a + bi, where and are real numbers. Because no real number satisfies the above equation, was called an imaginary number by René Descartes. For the complex number is called the , and is called the . The set of complex numbers is denoted by either of the symbols \mathbb C or . Despite the historical nomenclature, "imaginary" complex numbers have a mathematical existence as firm as that of the real numbers, and they are fundamental tools in the scientific description of the natural world. Complex numbers allow solutions to all polynomial equations, even those that have no solutions in real numbers. More precisely, the fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that every non-constant polynomial equation with real or complex coefficie ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elliptic Function
In the mathematical field of complex analysis, elliptic functions are special kinds of meromorphic functions, that satisfy two periodicity conditions. They are named elliptic functions because they come from elliptic integrals. Those integrals are in turn named elliptic because they first were encountered for the calculation of the arc length of an ellipse. Important elliptic functions are Jacobi elliptic functions and the Weierstrass \wp-function. Further development of this theory led to hyperelliptic functions and modular forms. Definition A meromorphic function is called an elliptic function, if there are two \mathbb- linear independent complex numbers \omega_1,\omega_2\in\mathbb such that : f(z + \omega_1) = f(z) and f(z + \omega_2) = f(z), \quad \forall z\in\mathbb. So elliptic functions have two periods and are therefore doubly periodic functions. Period lattice and fundamental domain If f is an elliptic function with periods \omega_1,\omega_2 it also holds ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Quadric (algebraic Geometry)
In mathematics, a quadric or quadric hypersurface is the subspace of ''N''-dimensional space defined by a polynomial equation of degree 2 over a field (mathematics), field. Quadrics are fundamental examples in algebraic geometry. The theory is simplified by working in projective space rather than affine space. An example is the quadric surface :xy=zw in projective space ^3 over the complex numbers C. A quadric has a natural action of the orthogonal group, and so the study of quadrics can be considered as a descendant of Euclidean geometry. Many properties of quadrics hold more generally for projective homogeneous varieties. Another generalization of quadrics is provided by Fano varieties. By definition, a quadric ''X'' of dimension ''n'' over a field ''k'' is the subspace of \mathbf^ defined by ''q'' = 0, where ''q'' is a nonzero homogeneous polynomial of degree 2 over ''k'' in variables x_0,\ldots,x_. (A homogeneous polynomial is also called a form, and so ''q'' may be called a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Square-free Polynomial
In mathematics, a square-free polynomial is a univariate polynomial (over a field or an integral domain) that has no multiple root in an algebraically closed field containing its coefficients. In characteristic 0, or over a finite field, a univariate polynomial is square free if and only if it does not have as a divisor any square of a non-constant polynomial. In applications in physics and engineering, a square-free polynomial is commonly called a polynomial with no repeated roots. The product rule implies that, if divides , then divides the formal derivative of . The converse is also true and hence, f is square-free if and only if 1 is a greatest common divisor of the polynomial and its derivative. A square-free decomposition or square-free factorization of a polynomial is a factorization into powers of square-free polynomials : f = a_1 a_2^2 a_3^3 \cdots a_n^n =\prod_^n a_k^k\, where those of the that are non-constant are pairwise coprime square-free polynomials (here, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
