The
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains (Persian: کوههای زاگرس;
Kurdish: چیاکانی زاگرۆس) form the largest mountain
range in Iran,
Iraq

Iraq and southeastern Turkey. This mountain range has a
total length of 1,500 km (930 mi). The Zagros mountain range
begins in northwestern
Iran

Iran and roughly corresponds to Iran's western
border. It spans the whole length of the western and southwestern
Iranian plateau, ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is
Mount Dena.
Contents
1 Geology
1.1 Type and age of rock
2 Glaciation of the East Zagros
3 Climate
4 Flora and fauna
5 History
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Geology[edit]
SRTM Shaded Relief Anaglyph of Zagros Mountains
The
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains from space, September 1992[2]
The
Zagros fold and thrust belt

Zagros fold and thrust belt was formed by the collision of two
tectonic plates, the
Eurasian Plate

Eurasian Plate and the Arabian Plate.[3] This
collision primarily happened during the
Miocene

Miocene and folded the entire
rocks that had been deposited from the
Carboniferous

Carboniferous to the
Miocene

Miocene in
the geosyncline in front of the Iranian Plate. The process of
collision continues to the present and as the
Arabian Plate

Arabian Plate is being
pushed against the Eurasian Plate, the
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains and the
Iranian Plateau

Iranian Plateau are getting higher and higher. Recent
GPS

GPS measurements
in Iran[4] have shown that this collision is still active and the
resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country,
mainly taken up in the major mountain belts like
Alborz

Alborz and Zagros. A
relatively dense
GPS

GPS network which covered the Iranian Zagros[5] also
proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The
GPS

GPS results
show that the current rate of shortening in the southeast Zagros is
~10 mm/a (0.39 in/year), dropping to ~5 mm/a
(0.20 in/year) in the northwest Zagros. The north-south Kazerun
strike-slip fault divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of
deformation. The
GPS

GPS results also show different shortening directions
along the belt, normal shortening in the southeast and oblique
shortening in the northwest Zagros.
The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of
rock salt (acting as a ductile decollement with a low basal friction)
whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin.
This different basal friction is partly responsible for the different
topographies on either side of the
Kazerun

Kazerun fault. Higher topography
and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas
in the SE, deformation was spread more and a wider zone of deformation
with lower topography was formed.[6] Stresses induced in the Earth's
crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting
layered sedimentary rocks. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks,
such as mudstone (rock formed by consolidated mud) and siltstone (a
slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as
limestone (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine
organisms) and dolomite (rocks similar to limestone containing calcium
and magnesium). This differential erosion formed the linear ridges of
the Zagros Mountains. The depositional environment and tectonic
history of the rocks were conducive to the formation and trapping of
petroleum, and the Zagros region is an important area for oil
production. Salt domes and salt glaciers are a common feature of the
Zagros Mountains. Salt domes are an important target for petroleum
exploration, as the impermeable salt frequently traps petroleum
beneath other rock layers.
Type and age of rock[edit]
The mountains have a totally sedimentary origin and are made primarily
of limestone. In the Elevated Zagros or the Higher Zagros, the
Paleozoic

Paleozoic rocks could be found mainly in the upper and higher sections
of the peaks of the
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains along the Zagros main fault. On
both sides of this fault, there are
Mesozoic

Mesozoic rocks, a combination of
Triassic

Triassic and
Jurassic

Jurassic rocks that are surrounded by
Cretaceous

Cretaceous rocks on
both sides. The Folded Zagros (the mountains south of the Elevated
Zagros and almost parallel to the main Zagros fault) is formed mainly
of
Tertiary rocks, with the
Paleogene rocks south of the Cretaceous
rocks and then the
Neogene

Neogene rocks south of the
Paleogene rocks. The
mountains are divided into many parallel sub-ranges (up to 10 or
250 km (6.2 or 155.3 mi) wide), and orogenically have the
same age as the Alps. Iran's main oilfields lie in the western central
foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The southern ranges of the
Fars Province

Fars Province have somewhat lower summits, reaching 4,000 metres (2.5
miles). They contain some limestone rocks showing abundant marine
fossils.[citation needed]
Glaciation of the East Zagros[edit]
Dena

Dena with its glaciers
The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4,135 m
(13,566 ft)), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4,374 m (14,350 ft)) and
Kuh-i-Hezar (4,469 m (14,662 ft)) do not currently have
glaciers. Only at
Zard Kuh

Zard Kuh and
Dena

Dena some glaciers still survive.
However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a
depth in excess of 1,900 metres (1.2 miles), and during the Last
Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2,160 metres (7,090 feet).
Evidence exists of a 20 km (12 mi) wide glacier fed along a
17 km (11 mi) long valley dropping approximately
1,500 m (4,900 ft) along its length on the north side of
Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350–550 m
(1,150–1,800 ft). Under precipitation conditions comparable to
the current conditions, this size of glacier could be expected to form
where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and
11.2 °C (50.9 and 52.2 °F), but since conditions are
expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier
was formed, the temperature must have been lower.[7][8][9][10]
Climate[edit]
The mountains contain several ecosystems. Prominent among them are the
forest and forest steppe areas with a semi-arid climate. As defined by
the
World Wildlife Fund

World Wildlife Fund and used in their Wildfinder, the particular
terrestrial ecoregion of the mid to high mountain area is Zagros
Mountains forest steppe (PA0446). The annual precipitation ranges from
400–800 mm (16–31 in) and falls mostly in winter and
spring. Winters are severe, with low temperatures often below
−25 °C (−13 °F). The region exemplifies the
continental variation of the
Mediterranean climate

Mediterranean climate pattern, with a
snowy winter and mild, rainy spring, followed by a dry summer and
autumn.[11]
Climate data for Amadiya District, Iraq
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °C (°F)
−0.2
(31.6)
1.4
(34.5)
6.4
(43.5)
12.2
(54)
19.3
(66.7)
24.8
(76.6)
29.7
(85.5)
29.6
(85.3)
25.6
(78.1)
17.7
(63.9)
9.7
(49.5)
2.7
(36.9)
14.91
(58.84)
Average low °C (°F)
−8.0
(17.6)
−6.8
(19.8)
−2.0
(28.4)
3.5
(38.3)
8.8
(47.8)
13.0
(55.4)
17.3
(63.1)
16.9
(62.4)
13.0
(55.4)
7.2
(45)
2.1
(35.8)
−4.3
(24.3)
5.06
(41.11)
Source: [12]
Flora and fauna[edit]
A view of Persian oak forests that dominate the Zagros Mountains
Men with a restrained lion in Iran. This photograph was taken by
Antoin Sevruguin, ca. 1880,[13] before the lion's extirpation in the
country.
Although currently degraded through overgrazing and deforestation, the
Zagros region is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the
originally widespread oak-dominated woodland can still be found, as
can the park-like pistachio/almond steppelands. The ancestors of many
familiar foods, including wheat, barley, lentil, almond, walnut,
pistachio, apricot, plum, pomegranate and grape can be found growing
wild throughout the mountains.[14] Persian oak (Quercus brantii)
(covering more than 50% of the Zagros forest area) is the most
important tree species of the Zagros in Iran.[15]
Other floral endemics found within the mountain range include: Allium
iranicum, Astracantha crenophila, Bellevalia kurdistanica, Cousinia
carduchorum, Cousinia odontolepis, Echinops rectangularis, Erysimum
boissieri, Iris barnumae, Ornithogalum iraqense, Scrophularia
atroglandulosa, Scorzoner kurdistanica, Tragopogon rechingeri, and
Tulipa kurdica.[16]
The Zagros are home to many threatened or endangered organisms,
including the
Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster

Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus
bailwardi), the
Basra reed-warbler
_-_Sylviidae_-_bird_skin_specimen.jpeg/440px-Naturalis_Biodiversity_Center_-_RMNH.AVES.37596_1_-_Acrocephalus_arundinaceus_griseldis_(Hartlaub,_1891)_-_Sylviidae_-_bird_skin_specimen.jpeg)
Basra reed-warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) and the
striped hyena (Hyena hyena). Luristan newt (Neurergus kaiseri) -
vulnerable endemic to the central Zagros mountains of Iran. The
Persian fallow deer

Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica), an ancient domesticate
once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late
20th century

20th century in
Khuzestan

Khuzestan Province, in the southern Zagros.
In the late 19th century, the
Asiatic lion

Asiatic lion (Panthera leo leo)[17]
occurred in the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct
in this region.[18]
History[edit]
Signs of early agriculture date back as far as 9000 BC to the
foothills of the mountains,[19] in cities later named Anshan and Susa.
Jarmo

Jarmo is one archaeological site in this area. Shanidar, where the
ancient skeletal remains of Neanderthals have been found, is another.
Some of the earliest evidence of wine production has been discovered
in the mountains; both the settlements of
Hajji Firuz Tepe

Hajji Firuz Tepe and Godin
Tepe have given evidence of wine storage dating between 3500 and 5400
BC.[20]
During early ancient times, the Zagros was the home of peoples such as
the Kassites, Guti, Assyrians,
Elamites

Elamites and Mitanni, who periodically
invaded the Sumerian and/or
Akkadian

Akkadian cities of Mesopotamia. The
mountains create a geographic barrier between the Mesopotamian Plain,
which is in Iraq, and the Iranian Plateau. A small archive of clay
tablets detailing the complex interactions of these groups in the
early second millennium BC has been found at
Tell Shemshara

Tell Shemshara along the
Little Zab.[21] Tell Bazmusian, near Shemshara, was occupied between
5000 BCE and 800 CE, although not continuously.[22]
Gallery[edit]
A road through the mountains in Iraqi Kurdistan
Mount Oshtorankuh
See also[edit]
Kurdistan
_box_inset_removed.jpg/500px-Kurdish-inhabited_area_by_CIA_(1992)_box_inset_removed.jpg)
Kurdistan portal
Taurus Mountains
Alborz

Alborz Mountains
Mount Elbrus
Silakhor Plain
Mount Arbaba
Wildlife of Iran
Wildlife of Iraq
Kurds
Kurdistan
Wildlife of Turkey
References[edit]
^ a b "Zagros Mountains". Brittanica. Encyclopedia Brittanica.
Retrieved 17 August 2017.
^ "Salt Dome in the Zagros Mountains, Iran". NASA Earth Observatory.
Retrieved 2006-04-27.
^ Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). Natural Wonders
of the World. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association,
Inc. pp. 422–423. ISBN 0-89577-087-3.
^ Nilforoushan F., Masson F., Vernant P., Vigny C., Martinod J.,
Abbassi M., Nankali H., Hatzfeld D., Bayer R., Tavakoli F., Ashtiani
A., Doerflinger E., Daignières M., Collard P., Chéry J., 2003. GPS
network monitors the Arabia-Eurasia collision deformation in Iran,
Journal of Geodesy, 77, 411–422.
^ Hessami K., Nilforoushan F., Talbot CJ., 2006, Active deformation
within the
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains deduced from
GPS

GPS measurements, Journal of
the Geological Society, London, 163, 143–148.
^ Nilforoushan F, Koyi HA., Swantesson J.O.H., Talbot CJ., 2008,
Effect of basal friction on the surface and volumetric strain in
models of convergent settings measured by laser scanner, Journal of
Structural Geology, 30, 366–379.
^ Kuhle, M. (1974):Vorläufige Ausführungen morphologischer
Feldarbeitsergebnisse aus den SE-Iranischen Hochgebirgen am Beispiel
des Kuh-i-Jupar. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F., 18, (4), pp.
472-483.
^ Kuhle, M. (1976):Beiträge zur Quartärgeomorphologie SE-Iranischer
Hochgebirge. Die quartäre Vergletscherung des Kuh-i-Jupar. Göttinger
Geographische Abhandlungen, 67, Vol. I, pp. 1-209; Vol. II, pp. 1-105.
^ Kuhle, M. (2007):The Pleistocene Glaciation (LGP and pre-LGP,
pre-LGM) of SE-Iranian Mountains exemplified by the Kuh-i-Jupar,
Kuh-i-Lalezar and Kuh-i-Hezar Massifs in the Zagros. Polarforschung,
77, (2-3), pp. 71-88. (Erratum/ Clarification concerning Figure 15,
Vol. 78, (1-2), 2008, p. 83.
^ Kuhle, M. (2011):The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial
Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of
Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates. Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L., Hughes, P.
D. (Eds.). Quaternary Glaciation - Extent and Chronology, A Closer
Look. Amsterdam, Elsevier B.V, pp. 943-965, (glacier maps
downloadable: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/).
^ Frey, W.; W. Probst (1986). Kurschner, Harald, ed. "A synopsis of
the vegetation in Iran". Contributions to the vegetation of Southwest
Asia. Wiesbaden, Germany: L. Reichert: 9–43.
ISBN 3-88226-297-4.
^ "Climate statistics for Amadiya". Meteovista. Retrieved September 6,
2014.
^ Sevruguin, A. (1880). "Men with live lion". National Museum of
Ethnology in Leiden, The Netherlands; Stephen Arpee Collection.
Retrieved 2018-03-26.
^ Cowan, edited by C. Wesley; Nancy L. Benco; Patty Jo Watson (2006).
The origins of agriculture : an international perspective ([New
ed.]. ed.). Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press.
ISBN 0-8173-5349-6. Retrieved 5 May 2012. CS1 maint: Extra
text: authors list (link)
^ M. Heydari; H. Poorbabaei; T. Rostami; M. Begim Faghir; A. Salehi;
R. Ostad Hashmei (2013). "Plant species in
Oak

Oak (Quercus brantii
Lindl.) understory and their relationship with physical and chemical
propertiesof soil in different altitude classes in the Arghvan valley
protected area, Iran" (PDF). Caspian Journal of Environmental
Sciences, 2013, Vol. 11 No.1, pp. 97~110. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
^ "Haji Omran Mountain (IQ018)" (PDF). natrueiraq.org. Retrieved 22
June 2016.
^ Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry,
A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.;
Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo,
S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.;
Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe,
S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the
Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF).
Cat News.
Special

Special Issue 11.
^ Heptner, V. G.; Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Lion".
Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola [Mammals
of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)].
Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science
Foundation. pp. 82–95. ISBN 90-04-08876-8.
^ La Mediterranée, Braudel, Fernand, 1985, Flammarion, Paris
^ Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York: Harper Collins.
2000.
^ Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen (2001), The Shemshara archives 1.
The letters, Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter, 23, Copenhagen: Kongelige
Danske videnskabernes selskab, ISBN 87-7876-245-6
^ Al-Soof, Behnam Abu (1970). "Mounds in the Rania Plain and
excavations at
Tell Bazmusian

Tell Bazmusian (1956)". Sumer. 26: 65–104.
ISSN 0081-9271.
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v
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e
Palearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Apennine deciduous montane forests (Italy)
Atlantic mixed forests (Denmark, France, Belgium, Germany,
Netherlands)
Azores temperate mixed forests (Portugal)
Balkan mixed forests

Balkan mixed forests (Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia,
Turkey)
Baltic mixed forests (Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland)
Cantabrian mixed forests (Spain, Portugal)
Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests

Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests (Iran, Azerbaijan)
Caucasus

Caucasus mixed forests (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Turkey)
Celtic broadleaf forests (United Kingdom, Ireland)
Central Anatolian deciduous forests

Central Anatolian deciduous forests (Turkey)
Central China loess plateau mixed forests (China)
Central European mixed forests (Austria, Germany, Lithuania, Moldova,
Poland, Belarus, Czech Republic)
Central Korean deciduous forests (North Korea, South Korea)
Changbai Mountains mixed forests (China, North Korea)
Changjiang Plain evergreen forests (China)
Crimean Submediterranean forest complex (Russia, Ukraine)
Daba Mountains evergreen forests

Daba Mountains evergreen forests (China)
Dinaric Mountains mixed forests

Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Italy, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia)
East European forest steppe (Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, Russia,
Ukraine)
Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests (Turkey)
English Lowlands beech forests

English Lowlands beech forests (United Kingdom)
Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests

Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests (Bulgaria, Georgia, Turkey)
Hokkaido deciduous forests (Japan)
Huang He Plain mixed forests (China)
Madeira evergreen forests (Portugal)
Manchurian mixed forests (China, North Korea, Russia, South Korea)
Nihonkai evergreen forests (Japan)
Nihonkai montane deciduous forests (Japan)
North Atlantic moist mixed forests (Ireland, United Kingdom)
Northeast China Plain deciduous forests (China)
Pannonian mixed forests (Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech
Republic, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine,
Croatia)
Po Basin mixed forests
_2.jpg/460px-Po_a_San_Benedetto_(Mantova)_2.jpg)
Po Basin mixed forests (Italy)
Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests (France, Spain, Andorra)
Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests (China)
Rodope montane mixed forests

Rodope montane mixed forests (Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia)
Sarmatic mixed forests

Sarmatic mixed forests (Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland,
Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus)
Sichuan Basin evergreen broadleaf forests
.jpg/600px-China_-_Emei_Shan_1_-_lush_misty_forest_(135959880).jpg)
Sichuan Basin evergreen broadleaf forests (China)
South Sakhalin-Kurile mixed forests (Russia)
Southern Korea evergreen forests (South Korea)
Taiheiyo evergreen forests (Japan)
Taiheiyo montane deciduous forests (Japan)
Tarim Basin

Tarim Basin deciduous forests and steppe (China)
Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests (Russia)
West Siberian broadleaf and mixed forests (Russia)
Western European broadleaf forests

Western European broadleaf forests (Switzerland, Austria, France,
Germany, Czech Republic)
Zagros Mountains

Zagros Mountains forest steppe (Iran, Arabian Peninsula)
33°40′00″N 47°00′00″E / 33.66667°N 47.00000°E /
33.66667; 47.00000Coordinates: 33°40′00″N 47°00′00″E /
33.66667°N 47.00000°E / 33.66667; 47.00000
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 240371