fundamental theorem of algebra

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The fundamental theorem of algebra also known as d'Alembert's theorem or the d'Alembert-Gauss theorem states that every non-
constant Constant or The Constant may refer to: Mathematics * Constant (mathematics) In mathematics, the word constant can have multiple meanings. As an adjective, it refers to non-variance (i.e. unchanging with respect to some other Value (mathematics ...
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with
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s has at least one complex
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. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with its
imaginary part In mathematics, a complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form , where and are real numbers, and is a symbol (mathematics), symbol called the imaginary unit, and satisfying the equation . Because no "real" number satisfies this ...
equal to zero. Equivalently (by definition), the theorem states that the
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s is
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. The theorem is also stated as follows: every non-zero, single-variable,
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''n'' polynomial with complex coefficients has, counted with multiplicity, exactly ''n'' complex roots. The equivalence of the two statements can be proven through the use of successive polynomial division. Despite its name, there is no purely algebraic proof of the theorem, since any proof must use some form of the analytic
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, which is Fundamental Theorem of Algebra#Algebraic proofs, not an algebraic concept. Additionally, it is not fundamental for modern algebra; its name was given at a time when algebra was synonymous with theory of equations.

# History

Peter Roth, in his book ''Arithmetica Philosophica'' (published in 1608, at Nürnberg, by Johann Lantzenberger), wrote that a polynomial equation of degree ''n'' (with real coefficients) ''may'' have ''n'' solutions. Albert Girard, in his book ''L'invention nouvelle en l'Algèbre'' (published in 1629), asserted that a polynomial equation of degree ''n'' has ''n'' solutions, but he did not state that they had to be real numbers. Furthermore, he added that his assertion holds "unless the equation is incomplete", by which he meant that no coefficient is equal to 0. However, when he explains in detail what he means, it is clear that he actually believes that his assertion is always true; for instance, he shows that the equation $x^4 = 4x-3,$ although incomplete, has four solutions (counting multiplicities): 1 (twice), $-1+i\sqrt,$ and $-1-i\sqrt.$ As will be mentioned again below, it follows from the fundamental theorem of algebra that every non-constant polynomial with real coefficients can be written as a product of polynomials with real coefficients whose degrees are either 1 or 2. However, in 1702 Gottfried Leibniz, Leibniz erroneously said that no polynomial of the type (with real and distinct from 0) can be written in such a way. Later, Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Nikolaus Bernoulli made the same assertion concerning the polynomial , but he got a letter from Leonhard Euler, Euler in 1742 in which it was shown that this polynomial is equal to :$\left \left(x^2-\left(2+\alpha\right)x+1+\sqrt+\alpha \right \right) \left \left(x^2-\left(2-\alpha\right)x+1+\sqrt-\alpha \right \right),$ with $\alpha = \sqrt.$ Also, Euler pointed out that :$x^4+a^4= \left \left(x^2+a\sqrt\cdot x+a^2 \right \right) \left \left(x^2-a\sqrt\cdot x+a^2 \right \right).$ A first attempt at proving the theorem was made by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, d'Alembert in 1746, but his proof was incomplete. Among other problems, it assumed implicitly a theorem (now known as Puiseux's theorem), which would not be proved until more than a century later and using the fundamental theorem of algebra. Other attempts were made by Leonhard Euler, Euler (1749), François Daviet de Foncenex, de Foncenex (1759), Joseph Louis Lagrange, Lagrange (1772), and Pierre-Simon Laplace, Laplace (1795). These last four attempts assumed implicitly Girard's assertion; to be more precise, the existence of solutions was assumed and all that remained to be proved was that their form was ''a'' + ''bi'' for some real numbers ''a'' and ''b''. In modern terms, Euler, de Foncenex, Lagrange, and Laplace were assuming the existence of a splitting field of the polynomial ''p''(''z''). At the end of the 18th century, two new proofs were published which did not assume the existence of roots, but neither of which was complete. One of them, due to James Wood (mathematician), James Wood and mainly algebraic, was published in 1798 and it was totally ignored. Wood's proof had an algebraic gap. The other one was published by Carl Friedrich Gauss, Gauss in 1799 and it was mainly geometric, but it had a topological gap, only filled by Alexander Ostrowski in 1920, as discussed in Smale (1981). The first rigorous proof was published by Jean-Robert Argand, Argand in 1806 (and revisited in 1813); it was also here that, for the first time, the fundamental theorem of algebra was stated for polynomials with complex coefficients, rather than just real coefficients. Gauss produced two other proofs in 1816 and another incomplete version of his original proof in 1849. The first textbook containing a proof of the theorem was Cauchy's ''Cours d'Analyse, Cours d'analyse de l'École Royale Polytechnique'' (1821). It contained Argand's proof, although Jean Robert Argand, Argand is not credited for it. None of the proofs mentioned so far is Constructivism (mathematics), constructive. It was Weierstrass who raised for the first time, in the middle of the 19th century, the problem of finding a constructive proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra. He presented his solution, which amounts in modern terms to a combination of the Durand–Kerner method with the homotopy continuation principle, in 1891. Another proof of this kind was obtained by Hellmuth Kneser in 1940 and simplified by his son Martin Kneser in 1981. Without using countable choice, it is not possible to constructively prove the fundamental theorem of algebra for complex numbers based on the construction of the real numbers, Dedekind real numbers (which are not constructively equivalent to the Cauchy real numbers without countable choice). However, Fred Richman proved a reformulated version of the theorem that does work.

# Proofs

All proofs below involve some mathematical analysis, or at least the Topology, topological concept of continuous function, continuity of real or complex functions. Some also use Derivative, differentiable or even Analytic function, analytic functions. This fact has led to the remark that the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is neither fundamental, nor a theorem of algebra. Some proofs of the theorem only prove that any non-constant polynomial with real coefficients has some complex root. This is enough to establish the theorem in the general case because, given a non-constant polynomial ''p''(''z'') with complex coefficients, the polynomial :$q\left(z\right)=p\left(z\right)\overline$ has only real coefficients and, if ''z'' is a zero of ''q''(''z''), then either ''z'' or its conjugate is a root of ''p''(''z''). A large number of non-algebraic proofs of the theorem use the fact (sometimes called "growth lemma") that an ''n''-th degree polynomial function ''p''(''z'') whose dominant coefficient is 1 behaves like ''zn'' when , ''z'', is large enough. A more precise statement is: there is some positive real number ''R'' such that: :$\tfrac, z^n, <, p\left(z\right), <\tfrac, z^n,$ when , ''z'',  > ''R''.

## Complex-analytic proofs

Find a closed disk (mathematics), disk ''D'' of radius ''r'' centered at the origin such that , ''p''(''z''),  > , ''p''(0), whenever , ''z'',  ≥ ''r''. The minimum of , ''p''(''z''), on ''D'', which must exist since ''D'' is compact set, compact, is therefore achieved at some point ''z''0 in the interior of ''D'', but not at any point of its boundary. The Maximum modulus principle (applied to 1/''p''(''z'')) implies then that ''p''(''z''0) = 0. In other words, ''z''0 is a zero of ''p''(''z''). A variation of this proof does not require the use of the maximum modulus principle (in fact, the same argument with minor changes also gives a proof of the maximum modulus principle for holomorphic functions). If we assume by contradiction that ''a'' := ''p''(''z''0) ≠ 0, then, expanding ''p''(''z'') in powers of ''z'' − ''z''0 we can write :$p\left(z\right) = a + c_k \left(z-z_0\right)^k + c_ \left(z-z_0\right)^ + \cdots + c_n \left(z-z_0\right)^n.$ Here, the ''cj'' are simply the coefficients of the polynomial ''z'' → ''p''(''z'' + ''z''0), and we let ''k'' be the index of the first coefficient following the constant term that is non-zero. But now we see that for ''z'' sufficiently close to ''z''0 this has behavior asymptotically similar to the simpler polynomial $q\left(z\right) = a+c_k \left(z-z_0\right)^k$, in the sense that (as is easy to check) the function :$\left, \frac\$ is bounded by some positive constant ''M'' in some neighborhood of ''z''0. Therefore, if we define $\theta_0 = \left(\arg\left(a\right)+\pi-\arg\left(c_k\right)\right) /k$ and let $z = z_0 + r e^$, then for any sufficiently small positive number ''r'' (so that the bound ''M'' mentioned above holds), using the triangle inequality we see that :$\begin , p\left(z\right), &\le , q\left(z\right), + r^ \left, \frac\\\\left[4pt\right] &\le \left, a +\left(-1\right)c_k r^k e^\ + M r^ \\\left[4pt\right] &= , a, -, c_k, r^k + M r^ \end$ When ''r'' is sufficiently close to 0 this upper bound for , ''p''(''z''), is strictly smaller than , ''a'', , in contradiction to the definition of ''z''0. (Geometrically, we have found an explicit direction θ0 such that if one approaches ''z''0 from that direction one can obtain values ''p''(''z'') smaller in absolute value than , ''p''(''z''0), .) Another analytic proof can be obtained along this line of thought observing that, since , ''p''(''z''),  > , ''p''(0), outside ''D'', the minimum of , ''p''(''z''), on the whole complex plane is achieved at ''z''0. If , ''p''(''z''0),  > 0, then 1/''p'' is a bounded holomorphic function in the entire complex plane since, for each complex number ''z'', , 1/''p''(''z''),  ≤ , 1/''p''(''z''0), . Applying Liouville's theorem (complex analysis), Liouville's theorem, which states that a bounded entire function must be constant, this would imply that 1/''p'' is constant and therefore that ''p'' is constant. This gives a contradiction, and hence ''p''(''z''0) = 0. Yet another analytic proof uses the argument principle. Let ''R'' be a positive real number large enough so that every root of ''p''(''z'') has absolute value smaller than ''R''; such a number must exist because every non-constant polynomial function of degree ''n'' has at most ''n'' zeros. For each ''r'' > ''R'', consider the number :$\frac\int_\frac\,dz,$ where ''c''(''r'') is the circle centered at 0 with radius ''r'' oriented counterclockwise; then the argument principle says that this number is the number ''N'' of zeros of ''p''(''z'') in the open ball centered at 0 with radius ''r'', which, since ''r'' > ''R'', is the total number of zeros of ''p''(''z''). On the other hand, the integral of ''n''/''z'' along ''c''(''r'') divided by 2π''i'' is equal to ''n''. But the difference between the two numbers is :$\frac\int_\left\left(\frac-\frac\right\right)dz=\frac\int_\frac\,dz.$ The numerator of the rational expression being integrated has degree at most ''n'' − 1 and the degree of the denominator is ''n'' + 1. Therefore, the number above tends to 0 as ''r'' → +∞. But the number is also equal to ''N'' − ''n'' and so ''N'' = ''n''. Still another complex-analytic proof can be given by combining linear algebra with the Cauchy's integral theorem, Cauchy theorem. To establish that every complex polynomial of degree ''n'' > 0 has a zero, it suffices to show that every complex square matrix of size ''n'' > 0 has a (complex) eigenvalue. The proof of the latter statement is Proof by contradiction, by contradiction. Let ''A'' be a complex square matrix of size ''n'' > 0 and let ''In'' be the unit matrix of the same size. Assume ''A'' has no eigenvalues. Consider the resolvent formalism, resolvent function :$R\left(z\right)=\left(zI_n-A\right)^,$ which is a meromorphic function on the complex plane with values in the vector space of matrices. The eigenvalues of ''A'' are precisely the poles of ''R''(''z''). Since, by assumption, ''A'' has no eigenvalues, the function ''R''(''z'') is an entire function and Cauchy's integral theorem, Cauchy theorem implies that :$\int_ R\left(z\right) \, dz =0.$ On the other hand, ''R''(''z'') expanded as a geometric series gives: :$R\left(z\right)=z^\left(I_n-z^A\right)^=z^\sum_^\infty \fracA^k\cdot$ This formula is valid outside the closed disc (mathematics), disc of radius $\, A\,$ (the operator norm of ''A''). Let $r>\, A\, .$ Then :$\int_R\left(z\right)dz=\sum_^\int_\fracA^k=2\pi iI_n$ (in which only the summand ''k'' = 0 has a nonzero integral). This is a contradiction, and so ''A'' has an eigenvalue. Finally, Rouché's theorem gives perhaps the shortest proof of the theorem.

## Topological proofs

Suppose the minimum of , ''p''(''z''), on the whole complex plane is achieved at ''z''0; it was seen at the proof which uses Liouville's theorem that such a number must exist. We can write ''p''(''z'') as a polynomial in ''z'' − ''z''0: there is some natural number ''k'' and there are some complex numbers ''ck'', ''c''''k'' + 1, ..., ''cn'' such that ''ck'' ≠ 0 and: :$p\left(z\right)=p\left(z_0\right)+c_k\left(z-z_0\right)^k+c_\left(z-z_0\right)^+ \cdots +c_n\left(z-z_0\right)^n.$ If ''p''(''z''0) is nonzero, it follows that if ''a'' is a ''k''th root of −''p''(''z''0)/''ck'' and if ''t'' is positive and sufficiently small, then , ''p''(''z''0 + ''ta''),  < , ''p''(''z''0), , which is impossible, since , ''p''(''z''0), is the minimum of , ''p'', on ''D''. For another topological proof by contradiction, suppose that the polynomial ''p''(''z'') has no roots, and consequently is never equal to 0. Think of the polynomial as a map from the complex plane into the complex plane. It maps any circle , ''z'',  = ''R'' into a closed loop, a curve ''P''(''R''). We will consider what happens to the winding number of ''P''(''R'') at the extremes when ''R'' is very large and when ''R'' = 0. When ''R'' is a sufficiently large number, then the leading term ''zn'' of ''p''(''z'') dominates all other terms combined; in other words, :$\left , z^n \right , > \left , a_ z^ + \cdots + a_0 \right , .$ When ''z'' traverses the circle $Re^$ once counter-clockwise $\left(0\leq \theta \leq 2\pi\right),$ then $z^n=R^ne^$ winds ''n'' times counter-clockwise $\left(0\leq \theta \leq 2\pi n\right)$ around the origin (0,0), and ''P''(''R'') likewise. At the other extreme, with , ''z'',  = 0, the curve ''P''(0) is merely the single point ''p''(0), which must be nonzero because ''p''(''z'') is never zero. Thus ''p''(0) must be distinct from the origin (0,0), which denotes 0 in the complex plane. The winding number of ''P''(0) around the origin (0,0) is thus 0. Now changing ''R'' continuously will homotopy, deform the loop continuously. At some ''R'' the winding number must change. But that can only happen if the curve ''P''(''R'') includes the origin (0,0) for some ''R''. But then for some ''z'' on that circle , ''z'',  = ''R'' we have ''p''(''z'') = 0, contradicting our original assumption. Therefore, ''p''(''z'') has at least one zero.

## Algebraic proofs

These proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra must make use of the following two facts about real numbers that are not algebraic but require only a small amount of analysis (more precisely, the intermediate value theorem in both cases): * every polynomial with an odd degree and real coefficients has some real root; * every non-negative real number has a square root. The second fact, together with the quadratic formula, implies the theorem for real quadratic polynomials. In other words, algebraic proofs of the fundamental theorem actually show that if ''R'' is any real-closed field, then its extension ''C'' = ''R''() is algebraically closed.

### By Induction

As mentioned above, it suffices to check the statement "every non-constant polynomial ''p''(''z'') with real coefficients has a complex root". This statement can be proved by induction on the greatest non-negative integer ''k'' such that 2''k'' divides the degree ''n'' of ''p''(''z''). Let ''a'' be the coefficient of ''zn'' in ''p''(''z'') and let ''F'' be a splitting field of ''p''(''z'') over ''C''; in other words, the field ''F'' contains ''C'' and there are elements ''z''1, ''z''2, ..., ''zn'' in ''F'' such that :$p\left(z\right)=a\left(z-z_1\right)\left(z-z_2\right) \cdots \left(z-z_n\right).$ If ''k'' = 0, then ''n'' is odd, and therefore ''p''(''z'') has a real root. Now, suppose that ''n'' = 2''km'' (with ''m'' odd and ''k'' > 0) and that the theorem is already proved when the degree of the polynomial has the form 2''k'' − 1''m''′ with ''m''′ odd. For a real number ''t'', define: :$q_t\left(z\right)=\prod_\left\left(z-z_i-z_j-tz_iz_j\right\right).$ Then the coefficients of ''qt''(''z'') are symmetric polynomials in the ''zi'' with real coefficients. Therefore, they can be expressed as polynomials with real coefficients in the elementary symmetric polynomials, that is, in −''a''1, ''a''2, ..., (−1)''nan''. So ''qt''(''z'') has in fact ''real'' coefficients. Furthermore, the degree of ''qt''(''z'') is ''n''(''n'' − 1)/2 = 2''k''−1''m''(''n'' − 1), and ''m''(''n'' − 1) is an odd number. So, using the induction hypothesis, ''qt'' has at least one complex root; in other words, ''zi'' + ''zj'' + ''tzizj'' is complex for two distinct elements ''i'' and ''j'' from . Since there are more real numbers than pairs (''i'', ''j''), one can find distinct real numbers ''t'' and ''s'' such that ''zi'' + ''zj'' + ''tzizj'' and ''zi'' + ''zj'' + ''szizj'' are complex (for the same ''i'' and ''j''). So, both ''zi'' + ''zj'' and ''zizj'' are complex numbers. It is easy to check that every complex number has a complex square root, thus every complex polynomial of degree 2 has a complex root by the quadratic formula. It follows that ''zi'' and ''zj'' are complex numbers, since they are roots of the quadratic polynomial ''z''2 −  (''zi'' + ''zj'')''z'' + ''zizj''. Joseph Shipman showed in 2007 that the assumption that odd degree polynomials have roots is stronger than necessary; any field in which polynomials of prime degree have roots is algebraically closed (so "odd" can be replaced by "odd prime" and this holds for fields of all characteristics). For axiomatization of algebraically closed fields, this is the best possible, as there are counterexamples if a single prime is excluded. However, these counterexamples rely on −1 having a square root. If we take a field where −1 has no square root, and every polynomial of degree ''n'' ∈ ''I'' has a root, where ''I'' is any fixed infinite set of odd numbers, then every polynomial ''f''(''x'') of odd degree has a root (since has a root, where ''k'' is chosen so that ). Mohsen Aliabadi generalized Shipman's result in 2013, providing an independent proof that a sufficient condition for an arbitrary field (of any characteristic) to be algebraically closed is that it has a root for every polynomial of prime degree.

### From Galois Theory

Another algebraic proof of the fundamental theorem can be given using Galois theory. It suffices to show that C has no proper finite field extension.A proof of the fact that this suffices can be seen Algebraically closed field#The field has no proper finite extension, here. Let ''K''/C be a finite extension. Since the Normal extension#Normal closure, normal closure of ''K'' over R still has a finite degree over C (or R), we may assume without loss of generality that ''K'' is a normal extension of R (hence it is a Galois extension, as every algebraic extension of a field of characteristic (algebra), characteristic 0 is separable extension, separable). Let ''G'' be the Galois group of this extension, and let ''H'' be a Sylow theorems, Sylow 2-subgroup of ''G'', so that the order (group theory), order of ''H'' is a power of 2, and the index of a subgroup, index of ''H'' in ''G'' is odd. By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, there exists a subextension ''L'' of ''K''/R such that Gal(''K''/''L'') = ''H''. As [''L'':R] = [''G'':''H''] is odd, and there are no nonlinear irreducible real polynomials of odd degree, we must have ''L'' = R, thus [''K'':R] and [''K'':C] are powers of 2. Assuming by way of contradiction that [''K'':C] > 1, we conclude that the p-group, 2-group Gal(''K''/C) contains a subgroup of index 2, so there exists a subextension ''M'' of C of degree 2. However, C has no extension of degree 2, because every quadratic complex polynomial has a complex root, as mentioned above. This shows that [''K'':C] = 1, and therefore ''K'' = C, which completes the proof.

## Geometric proofs

There exists still another way to approach the fundamental theorem of algebra, due to J. M. Almira and A. Romero: by Riemannian geometry, Riemannian geometric arguments. The main idea here is to prove that the existence of a non-constant polynomial ''p''(''z'') without zeros implies the existence of a Flat manifold, flat Riemannian metric over the sphere S2. This leads to a contradiction since the sphere is not flat. A Riemannian surface (''M'', ''g'') is said to be flat if its Gaussian curvature, which we denote by ''Kg'', is identically null. Now, Gauss–Bonnet theorem, when applied to the sphere S2, claims that :$\int_K_g=4\pi,$ which proves that the sphere is not flat. Let us now assume that ''n'' > 0 and :$p\left(z\right) = a_0 + a_1 z + \cdots + a_n z^n \neq 0$ for each complex number ''z''. Let us define :$p^*\left(z\right) = z^n p \left \left( \tfrac \right \right) = a_0 z^n + a_1 z^ + \cdots + a_n.$ Obviously, ''p*''(''z'') ≠ 0 for all ''z'' in C. Consider the polynomial ''f''(''z'') = ''p''(''z'')''p*''(''z''). Then ''f''(''z'') ≠ 0 for each ''z'' in C. Furthermore, :$f\left(\tfrac\right) = p \left \left(\tfrac \right \right)p^* \left \left(\tfrac \right \right) = w^p^*\left(w\right)p\left(w\right) = w^f\left(w\right).$ We can use this functional equation to prove that ''g'', given by :$g=\frac\,, dw, ^2$ for ''w'' in C, and :$g=\frac\left , d\left \left(\tfrac \right \right) \right , ^2$ for ''w'' ∈ S2\, is a well defined Riemannian metric over the sphere S2 (which we identify with the extended complex plane C ∪ ). Now, a simple computation shows that :$\forall w\in\mathbf: \qquad \frac K_g=\frac\Delta \log, f\left(w\right), =\frac\Delta \text\left(\log f\left(w\right)\right)=0,$ since the real part of an analytic function is harmonic. This proves that ''Kg'' = 0.

# Corollaries

Since the fundamental theorem of algebra can be seen as the statement that the field of complex numbers is
algebraically closed In mathematics Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). It ...
, it follows that any theorem concerning algebraically closed fields applies to the field of complex numbers. Here are a few more consequences of the theorem, which are either about the field of real numbers or the relationship between the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers: * The field of complex numbers is the algebraic closure of the field of real numbers. * Every polynomial in one variable ''z'' with complex coefficients is the product of a complex constant and polynomials of the form ''z'' + ''a'' with ''a'' complex. * Every polynomial in one variable ''x'' with real coefficients can be uniquely written as the product of a constant, polynomials of the form ''x'' + ''a'' with ''a'' real, and polynomials of the form ''x''2 + ''ax'' + ''b'' with ''a'' and ''b'' real and ''a''2 − 4''b'' < 0 (which is the same thing as saying that the polynomial ''x''2 + ''ax'' + ''b'' has no real roots). (By the Abel–Ruffini theorem, the real numbers ''a'' and ''b'' are not necessarily expressible in terms of the coefficients of the polynomial, the basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of ''n''-th roots.) This implies that the number of non-real complex roots is always even and remains even when counted with their multiplicity. * Every rational function in one variable ''x'', with real coefficients, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form ''a''/(''x'' − ''b'')''n'' (where ''n'' is a natural number, and ''a'' and ''b'' are real numbers), and rational functions of the form (''ax'' + ''b'')/(''x''2 + ''cx'' + ''d'')''n'' (where ''n'' is a natural number, and ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', and ''d'' are real numbers such that ''c''2 − 4''d'' < 0). A corollary of this is that every rational function in one variable and real coefficients has an elementary function (differential algebra), elementary Antiderivative, primitive. * Every algebraic extension of the real field is isomorphic either to the real field or to the complex field.

# Bounds on the zeros of a polynomial

While the fundamental theorem of algebra states a general existence result, it is of some interest, both from the theoretical and from the practical point of view, to have information on the location of the zeros of a given polynomial. The simpler result in this direction is a bound on the modulus: all zeros ζ of a monic polynomial $z^n+a_z^+\cdots+a_1z +a_0$ satisfy an inequality , ζ, ≤ ''R'', where :$R_:= 1+\max\.$ Notice that, as stated, this is not yet an existence result but rather an example of what is called an a priori and a posteriori, a priori bound: it says that ''if there are solutions'' then they lie inside the closed disk of center the origin and radius ''R''. However, once coupled with the fundamental theorem of algebra it says that the disk contains in fact at least one solution. More generally, a bound can be given directly in terms of any p-norm of the ''n''-vector of coefficients $a:=\left( a_0, a_1, \ldots, a_\right),$ that is , ζ, ≤ ''Rp'', where ''Rp'' is precisely the ''q''-norm of the 2-vector $\left(1, \, a\, _p\right),$ ''q'' being the conjugate exponent of ''p'', $\tfrac + \tfrac =1,$ for any 1 ≤ ''p'' ≤ ∞. Thus, the modulus of any solution is also bounded by :$R_1:= \max\left \,$ :$R_p:= \left\left[ 1 + \left\left(\sum_, a_k, ^p\right \right)^\right \right]^,$ for 1 < ''p'' < ∞, and in particular :$R_2:= \sqrt$ (where we define ''an'' to mean 1, which is reasonable since 1 is indeed the ''n''-th coefficient of our polynomial). The case of a generic polynomial of degree ''n'', :$P\left(z\right):= a_n z^n+a_z^+\cdots+a_1z +a_0,$ is of course reduced to the case of a monic, dividing all coefficients by ''an'' ≠ 0. Also, in case that 0 is not a root, i.e. ''a''0 ≠ 0, bounds from below on the roots ζ follow immediately as bounds from above on $\tfrac$, that is, the roots of :$a_0 z^n+a_1z^+\cdots+a_z +a_n.$ Finally, the distance $, \zeta-\zeta_0,$ from the roots ζ to any point $\zeta_0$ can be estimated from below and above, seeing $\zeta-\zeta_0$ as zeros of the polynomial $P\left(z+\zeta_0\right)$, whose coefficients are the Taylor expansion of ''P''(''z'') at $z=\zeta_0.$ Let ζ be a root of the polynomial :$z^n+a_z^+\cdots+a_1z +a_0;$ in order to prove the inequality , ζ, ≤ ''Rp'' we can assume, of course, , ζ, > 1. Writing the equation as :$-\zeta^n=a_\zeta^+\cdots+a_1\zeta+a_0,$ and using the Hölder's inequality we find :$, \zeta, ^n\leq \, a\, _p \left \, \left \left(\zeta^,\ldots,\zeta, 1 \right \right) \right \, _q.$ Now, if ''p'' = 1, this is :$, \zeta, ^n\leq\, a\, _1\max \left \ =\, a\, _1, \zeta, ^,$ thus :$, \zeta, \leq \max\.$ In the case 1 < ''p'' ≤ ∞, taking into account the summation formula for a geometric progression, we have :$, \zeta, ^n\leq \, a\, _p \left\left(, \zeta, ^+\cdots+, \zeta, ^q +1\right\right)^=\, a\, _p \left\left(\frac\right\right)^\leq\, a\, _p \left\left(\frac\right\right)^,$ thus :$, \zeta, ^\leq \, a\, _p^q \frac$ and simplifying, :$, \zeta, ^q\leq 1+\, a\, _p^q.$ Therefore :$, \zeta, \leq \left \, \left \left(1,\, a\, _p \right \right) \right \, _q=R_p$ holds, for all 1 ≤ ''p'' ≤ ∞.

* Weierstrass factorization theorem, a generalization of the theorem to other entire functions *Eilenberg–Niven theorem, a generalization of the theorem to polynomials with Quaternion, quaternionic coefficients and variables

# References

## Historic sources

* (tr. Course on Analysis of the École Polytechnique, Royal Polytechnic Academy, part 1: Algebraic Analysis) * . English translation: * (tr. New proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree). * *# – first proof. *# – second proof. *# – third proof. *# – fourth proof. * (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Intuitionism). * (tr. An extension of a work of Hellmuth Kneser on the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). * (tr. On the first and fourth Gaussian proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). * (tr. New proof of the theorem that every integral rational function of one variable can be represented as a product of linear functions of the same variable).

## Recent literature

* * * * * * * (tr. On the history of the fundamental theorem of algebra: theory of equations and integral calculus.) * (tr. The rational functions §80–88: the fundamental theorem). * * *

* * * – English translation of Gauss's second proof. *