The National Archives UK - CO 1069-125-10

1960 It is also known as the "Year of Africa" because of major events—particularly the independence of seventeen African nations—that focused global attention on the continent and intensified feelings of Pan-Africanism. Events January * Ja ...

is referred to as the Year of Africa because of a series of events that took place during the year—mainly the independence of seventeen

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

n nations—that highlighted the growing

Pan-African Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement exte ...

sentiments in the continent. The year brought about the culmination of African

independence movements Presented below is a list of lists of active separatist movements: * List of active separatist movements in Africa * List of active separatist movements in Asia *List of active separatist movements in Europe * List of active separatist movement ...

and the subsequent emergence of Africa as a major force in the United Nations. These rapid political developments led to speculation and hope about the future of Africa as a whole; yet at the same time, the continent was beginning to face the realities of post-colonial violence. This year also saw the beginning of armed opposition to South African

apartheid Apartheid (, especially South African English: , ; , "aparthood") was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. Apartheid was ...

government, with political ramifications across Africa and around the world. During the year, all colonies of

French West Africa French West Africa (french: Afrique-Occidentale française, ) was a federation of eight French colonial territories in West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Ivory Coast, Upper Volta (now B ...

and

French Equatorial Africa French Equatorial Africa (french: link=no, Afrique-Équatoriale française), or the AEF, was the federation of French colonial possessions in Equatorial Africa, extending northwards from the Congo River into the Sahel, and comprising what are ...

became independent.

Origin

Semaine des barricades Alger 1960 Haute Qualité

O. H. Morris of the British Ministry of Colonies predicted in early January that "1960 will be a year of Africa". The phrase "year of Africa" was also used by

Ralph Bunche Ralph Johnson Bunche (; August 7, 1904 – December 9, 1971) was an American political scientist, diplomat, and leading actor in the mid-20th-century decolonization process and US civil rights movement, who received the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize ...

on 16 February 1960. Bunche anticipated that many states would achieve independence in that year due to the "well nigh explosive rapidity with which the peoples of Africa in all sectors are emerging from colonialism." The concept of a "Year of Africa" drew international media attention.Daniel Schwartz,
1960: The Year of Africa
, CBC, 8 June 2010. The mythology of the year was also influenced by the "Wind of Change" speech, delivered on 3 February 1960 by

Harold Macmillan Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986) was a British Conservative statesman and politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963. Caricatured as " Supermac", ...

. Speaking in

Cape Town Cape Town ( af, Kaapstad; , xh, iKapa) is one of South Africa's three capital cities, serving as the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. It is the legislative capital of the country, the oldest city in the country, and the second largest ...

, Macmillan acknowledged that imperial powers would have difficulty continuing to control their colonies.Manuel Manrique Gil,
1960–2010: 50 years of 'African independences
", ''On Africa'', 4 January 2010. The speech represented an admission by Britain's political elite that the

British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts e ...

was over and could not be maintained. This inspired a reaction from the Empire Loyalist wing of the

Conservative Party The Conservative Party is a name used by many political parties around the world. These political parties are generally right-wing though their exact ideologies can range from center-right to far-right. Political parties called The Conservative P ...

; see

Conservative Monday Club The Conservative Monday Club (usually known as the Monday Club) is a British political pressure group, aligned with the Conservative Party, though no longer endorsed by it. It also has links to the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Ulster Unioni ...

. Africans also reacted. In the words of Guinean Foreign Minister Caba Sory:

Independence

During 1960, the number of independent countries rose from nine (with populations of 95 million) to twenty-six (with populations of 180 million), gaining their independence from

Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to ...

, France and the United Kingdom.

From France

In response to mounting conflict in Algeria—particularly the

May 1958 crisis The May 1958 crisis, also known as the Algiers putsch or the coup of 13 May, was a political crisis in France during the turmoil of the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) which led to the collapse of the Fourth Republic and its replacem ...

—France created a new constitution in 1958. This constitution made colonial states part of the "

French Community The French Community (1958–1960; french: Communauté française) was the constitutional organization set up in 1958 between France and its remaining African colonies, then in the process of decolonization. It replaced the French Union, which ...

" (''La Communauté'') which restructured the French empire as a sort of federation. All member states acceded to the agreement except for Guinea, which obtained independence in 1958 when it refused to join ''La Communauté''. Its decision led France to cut off all support but set a precedent for other French colonies. In December 1959, returning French leader

Charles De Gaulle Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (; ; (commonly abbreviated as CDG) 22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Governm ...

agreed that member states could have independence if they chose. All did, at a rate much faster than France anticipated. *

Cameroon Cameroon (; french: Cameroun, ff, Kamerun), officially the Republic of Cameroon (french: République du Cameroun, links=no), is a country in west-central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west and north; Chad to the northeast; the ...

(formerly

Cameroun Cameroon (; french: Cameroun, ff, Kamerun), officially the Republic of Cameroon (french: République du Cameroun, links=no), is a country in west-central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west and north; Chad to the northeast; the ...

) achieved independence on the first day of 1960 (unifying with British Cameroons in 1961). *

Togo Togo (), officially the Togolese Republic (french: République togolaise), is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, where its c ...

(formerly

French Togoland French Togoland (French: '' Togo français'') was a French colonial empires, French colonial League of Nations mandate from 1916 to 1960 in French West Africa. In 1960 it became the independent Togolese Republic, and the present day nation of T ...

) achieved independence on 27 April *

Mali Federation The Mali Federation ( ar, اتحاد مالي) was a federation in West Africa linking the French colonies of Senegal and the Sudanese Republic (or French Sudan) for two months in 1960. It was founded on 4 April 1959 as a territory with self-ru ...

became independent on 20 June, then split into

Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...

and

Senegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...

on 20 August *

Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Afric ...

became independent on 26 June *

Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a region ...

(renamed to

Benin Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...

in 1975) became independent on 1 August *

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesUpper Volta (renamed to

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana t ...

in 1984), independent on 5 August *

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre i ...

(Côte d'Ivoire), independent on 7 August *

Chad Chad (; ar, تشاد , ; french: Tchad, ), officially the Republic of Chad, '; ) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic ...

, independent on 11 August *

Central African Republic The Central African Republic (CAR; ; , RCA; , or , ) is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the southeast, the DR Congo to the south, the Republic of th ...

, independent on 13 August *

Republic of the Congo The Republic of the Congo (french: République du Congo, ln, Republíki ya Kongó), also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply either Congo or the Congo, is a country located in the western coast of Central Africa to the w ...

(Brazzaville), independent on 15 August *

Gabon Gabon (; ; snq, Ngabu), officially the Gabonese Republic (french: République gabonaise), is a country on the west coast of Central Africa. Located on the equator, it is bordered by Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the nort ...

, independent on 17 August *

Mauritania Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...

, independent on 28 November These countries remained within the French sphere of influence, particularly in economic terms. France also brokered political agreements with the Mali Federation and Madagascar, waiving the mandate that departure from the French Community would lead to the end of political ties (as it had for Guinea). French companies thus accepted the arrangement, because they would remain well-positioned to profit from the newly independent countries—which also continued to use colonial (CFA) francs. The new constitutions created by these countries use some ideas from the French Constitution, including values of democracy and universal rights as well as a parliamentary system with a strong executive. They also sometimes use language from the UN's

Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is an international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly that enshrines the rights and freedoms of all human beings. Drafted by a UN committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt ...

. They all emphasize

Pan-Africanism Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement exte ...

over

nationalism Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...

From the United Kingdom

Two countries achieved independence from the

in 1960:

Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constitut ...

, through the unification of

British Somaliland British Somaliland, officially the Somaliland Protectorate ( so, Dhulka Maxmiyada Soomaalida ee Biritishka), was a British protectorate in present-day Somaliland. During its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somalia, French So ...

and the Trust Territory of Somalia, and

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...

. On 26 June (also the day of Madagascar's independence), British Somaliland became the independent

State of Somaliland The State of Somaliland (, ) was a short-lived independent country in the territory of present-day unilaterally declared Republic of Somaliland. It existed on the territory of former British Somaliland for five days between 26 June 1960 and 1 ...

. Five days later, it united with the Italian Trust Territory of Somalia to create the Somali Republic on 1 July. Nigeria had the largest population and best economy on the continent. It became independent on 1 October. Also in 1960, the

Dominion of Ghana Ghana was the first African country colonised by European powers to achieve independence under majority rule. During the first three years after independence, from 1957 to 1960, a Westminster system of government was in place and the British mo ...

voted to become a Republic, thereby ending Queen Elizabeth II's rule, 1957–1960, as the Queen of Ghana. World-famous Pan-Africanist

Kwame Nkrumah Kwame Nkrumah (born 21 September 190927 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, having led the Gold Coast to independence from Britain in 1957. An ...

, formerly the Prime Minister, was simultaneously elected President, on 27 April 1960.

From Belgium

The Congolese had been agitating heavily for independence, and at the beginning of 1960

Patrice Lumumba Patrice Émery Lumumba (; 2 July 1925 – 17 January 1961) was a Congolese politician and independence leader who served as the first prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then known as the Republic of the Congo) from June u ...

was imprisoned for inciting a riot in 1959. Recognizing that the Congo was going to become independent, Belgium freed Lumumba and allowed him to attend a conference in Brussels from 18 to 27 January. At the conference, 30 June was established as independence day for the

. Lumumba won a large plurality in the May elections and became Prime Minister of the country on 30 June. The spirit of the occasion inspired the celebrated Congolese musician Le Grand Kallé to write the song "''

Indépendance Cha Cha "''Indépendance Cha Cha''" ( French; "Independence cha cha") was a song performed by Joseph Kabasele (best known by his stage name ''Le Grand Kallé'') from the group '' L'African Jazz'' in the popular African Rumba style. The song has been de ...

''", which became a pan-African hit. The country was soon embroiled in turmoil, and Lumumba was deposed on 14 September. He was subsequently tortured and executed.Abayomi Azikiwe,
50th Anniversary of the 'Year of Africa' 1960
, ''Pan-African News Wire'', 21 April 2010. The subsequent period of instability is sometimes called the

Congo Crisis The Congo Crisis (french: Crise congolaise, link=no) was a period of political upheaval and conflict between 1960 and 1965 in the Republic of the Congo (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo). The crisis began almost immediately after ...

. The events in the Congo led the '' London Daily Express''—which had consistently favoured colonialism—to denounce the "Year of Africa" and call for 1961 to be a "year of realism".

South Africa

The

Sharpeville massacre The Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960 at the police station in the township of Sharpeville in the then Transvaal Province of the then Union of South Africa (today part of Gauteng). After demonstrating against pass laws, a crowd ...

in South Africa took place on 21 March 1960, triggering mass underground resistance as well as international solidarity demonstrations. This event is sometimes cited as the beginning of worldwide struggle against

. South African activists and academics describe it as a turning point in the resistance, marking the end of nonviolence and liberalism. Some say that its biggest impact came in making white South Africans aware of the brutality with which political Blacks were being suppressed. On 5 October, a referendum was passed in South Africa which abolished the monarchy, which set up South Africa's leaving the

Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations, simply referred to as the Commonwealth, is a political association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire. The chief institutions of the organisation are the C ...

the next year over its racial policies.

United Nations

In October, Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah delivered an address to the United Nations in which he discussed Africa's role in the world and the future role of the world in Africa. Nkrumah asserted Africa's new power, opining that it did not wish revenge on the European nations which colonized the continent, but would insist on freedom nonetheless:

One cardinal fact of our time is the momentous impact of Africa's awakening upon the modern world. The flowing tide of African nationalism sweeps everything before it and constitutes a challenge to the colonial powers to make a just restitution for the years of injustice and crime committed against our continent.
But Africa does not seek vengeance. It is against her very nature to harbor malice. Over two million of our people cry out with one voice of tremendous power. And what do they say? We do not ask for death for our oppressors; we do not pronounce wishes of ill-fate for our slave-masters; we make an assertion of a just and positive demand; our voice booms across the oceans and mountains, over the hills and valleys, in the desert places and through the vast expanse of mankind's inhabitations, and it calls out for the freedom of Africa. Africa wants her freedom. Africa must be free. It is a simple call, but it's also a signal lighting a red warning to those who would tend to ignore it.

Nkrumah called for an end to

white supremacy White supremacy or white supremacism is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races and thus should dominate them. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White ...

, particularly in South Africa. In an introduction the printed text of the speech,

W.E.B. Du Bois William Edward Burghardt Du Bois ( ; February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American-Ghanaian sociologist, socialist, historian, and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up i ...

writes: "...there can be no doubt that Kwame Nkrumah is the Voice of Africa. That is, that more nearly than any other living man he expresses the thought and ideals of the dark continent and that this continent is stepping to the forefront in world affairs." On 14 December 1960, the UN General Assembly approved the

Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, also known as the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514, was a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly during its fifteenth session, that affi ...

. This statement affirms that "all peoples have the right to self-determination", and that rule by outside powers constitutes a violation of human rights. The statement passed with no votes against. The United States and seven other colonial powers abstained;

Zelma George Zelma Watson George (December 8, 1903 – July 3, 1994) was a well-known African-American philanthropist who was famous for being an alternate in the United Nations General Assembly and, as a headliner in Gian-Carlo Menotti's opera '' The Medium' ...

, an African American in the U.S. delegation, stood to signify her support of the Declaration.

Related events

The Second

All-African Peoples' Conference The All-African Peoples Conference (AAPC) was partly a corollary and partly a different perspective to the modern Africa states represented by the Conference of Heads of independent Africa States. The All-Africa Peoples Conference was conceived to ...

, held from 25 to 31 January, called for Africa's complete independence and the establishment of an African bank. In the

1960 Summer Olympics The 1960 Summer Olympics ( it, Giochi Olimpici estivi del 1960), officially known as the Games of the XVII Olympiad ( it, Giochi della XVII Olimpiade) and commonly known as Rome 1960 ( it, Roma 1960), were an international multi-sport event held ...

in Rome, Ethiopian runner Abebe Bikila won the marathon and became the first Black African to receive an Olympic gold medal. His achievement intensified African pride and global focus on the continent.

Implications and legacy

The National Archives UK - CO 1069-124-8

The Year of Africa altered the symbolic status of Africans worldwide, by having the world recognize the existence of African nations as a force to be reckoned with on the international arena. It marked the beginning of a new, more Afrocentric era in

African studies African studies is the study of Africa, especially the continent's cultures and societies (as opposed to its geology, geography, zoology, etc.). The field includes the study of Africa's history (pre-colonial, colonial, post-colonial), demography ...

, marked by the founding of the '' Cahiers d'Études africaines'' and the ''

Journal of African History ''The Journal of African History'' (JAH) is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal. It was established in 1960 and is published by Cambridge University Press. It was among the first specialist journals to be devoted to African history and ar ...

''.John Lonsdale,
African Studies, Europe & Africa
, ''afrika spectrum'' 40(3), 2005. The Year of Africa was a major boost for African Americans, themselves engaged in the

Civil Rights Movement The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social and political movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalized institutional racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement throughout the Unite ...

within the United States. The ''

Baltimore Afro-American The ''Baltimore Afro-American'', commonly known as ''The Afro'' or ''Afro News'', is a weekly African-American newspaper published in Baltimore, Maryland. It is the flagship newspaper of the ''AFRO-American'' chain and the longest-running Africa ...

'', confident that sit-ins would defeat segregation in the Southern United States, editorialized: "The 'winds of change' which are sweeping over Africa, are blowing in the benighted areas of the United States, too." Professor James H. Meriwether, looking back on the Year of Africa, writes: "The events of 1960 strengthened links between African Americans and the worldwide struggle against white supremacy, while doing so on a more Africa-centered basis." More concretely, resisters to segregation in the Southern United States may have begun to look to South Africa for inspiration—and vice versa. The phrase "Year of Africa" was used again in 2005, mostly in conjunction with Western attention to the continent surrounding the

31st G8 summit The 31st G8 summit was held on 6–8 July 2005 at the Gleneagles Hotel in Auchterarder, Scotland and hosted by Prime Minister Tony Blair. The locations of previous G8 summits to have been hosted by the UK include: London (1977, 1984, 1991); an ...

.Rosalind McLymont, "The Year of Africa; Buzz without bling is just buzz", ''Network Journal'' 12(8), July/August 2005; accesse
via ProQuest
"The world's wealthiest nations are calling 2005 the "Year of Africa." They're turning their attention, collectively and individually, to doing something about a continent they proclaim to be mired in poverty, H.I.V./AIDS, war and bad governance. Heads of state, business leaders, rock stars, philanthropists – everybody, it seems, has an Africa plan." In 2010, several African nations celebrated 50 years of independence on the "Year of Africa" semicentennial.

References

Bibliography

De Lusignan G. ''French-Speaking Africa Since Independence''. New York: Praeger, 1969. Foderaro S. ''Independent Africa''. Toronto: Macmillan, 1976. . Houser G. M. ''No One Can Stop the Rain: Glimpses of Africa's Liberation Struggle''. New York: Pilgrim Press, 1989. . Lodge T. ''Sharpeville: an apartheid massacre and its consequences''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. . Meriwether J. H.
Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961
'. University of North Carolina Press, 2002. . Phyllis T. African Freedom: How Africa Responded to Independence. Cambridge University Press, 2018. Smith A. W. M., Jeppesen C. Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect. UCL Press, 2017.

External links

In: ''Internet Library Sub-Saharan Africa'' (ilissAfrica). * ttp://www.france24.com/en/20100214-1960-year-independence 1960: The year of independence on France24 {{DEFAULTSORT:Year Of Africa 1960 in international relations 1960 in Africa Pan-Africanism History of colonialism Apartheid in South Africa Independence movements