The Xianfeng Emperor (17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861), or by

temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...

Emperor Wenzong of Qing (),

given name A given name (also known as a forename or first name) is the part of a personal name quoted in that identifies a person, potentially with a middle name as well, and differentiates that person from the other members of a group (typically a ...

Yizhu (), was the eighth

Emperor of the Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty (1636–1912) was a Manchu-led imperial Chinese dynasty and the last orthodox dynasty of China. It was officially founded in 1636 in what is now Northeast China, but only succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper in 1644. The ...

, and the seventh Qing emperor to rule over

China proper China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions pop ...

, reigned from 1850 to 1861. During his reign, the Qing dynasty experienced several wars and rebellions including the

Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a massive rebellion and civil war that was waged in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Han, Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It last ...

Nian Rebellion The Nian Rebellion () was an armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868, contemporaneously with Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864) in South China. The rebellion failed to topple the Qing dynasty, but caused immense economic ...

, and

Second Opium War The Second Opium War (), also known as the Second Anglo-Sino War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a colonial war lasting from 1856 to 1860, which pitted the British Empire#Britain's imperial ...

(Arrow War). He was the last Chinese emperor to have authoritarian and total executive ruling power. After his death, the Qing government was controlled by

Empress Dowager Cixi Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; mnc, Tsysi taiheo; formerly romanised as Empress Dowager T'zu-hsi; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu Yehe Nara clan, was a Chinese noblewoman, concubine and later regent who effectively controlled ...

Family and early life

Yizhu was born in 1831 at the

Old Summer Palace The Old Summer Palace, also known as Yuanmingyuan () or Yuanmingyuan Park, originally called the Imperial Gardens (), and sometimes called the Winter Palace, was a complex of palaces and gardens in present-day Haidian District, Beijing, China. ...

, eight kilometres northwest of

Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...

. He was from the Manchu

Aisin Gioro The House of Aisin-Gioro was a Manchu clan that ruled the Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636), the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), and Manchukuo (1932–1945) in the history of China. Under the Ming dynasty, members of the Aisin Gioro clan served as ch ...

clan, and was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor. His mother was the Noble Consort Quan, of the Manchu

Niohuru The Niohuru (Manchu: ; in Manchu) were a prominent Manchu clan during the Qing dynasty. The clan had inhabited the Changbai Mountains since as early as the Liao dynasty. The clan was well known during the Qing dynasty for producing a variety o ...

clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as

Empress Xiaoquancheng Empress Xiaoquancheng (24 March 1808 – 13 February 1840), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and second empress consort of Mianning, the Daoguang Emperor. She was Empress consort of ...

. Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers, which impressed his father, who therefore decided to make him his successor.

Early reign

Yizhu succeeded the throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internal but also foreign challenges. Yizhu's reign title, ''Xianfeng'', which means "Universal Prosperity", did not reflect the situation. In 1850, the first of a series of popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the Qing dynasty. The

began in December 1850, when

Hong Xiuquan Hong Xiuquan (1 January 1814 – 1 June 1864), born Hong Huoxiu and with the courtesy name Renkun, was a Chinese revolutionary who was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. He established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdo ...

, a

Hakka The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka-speaking provincial areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhej ...

leader of a syncretic Christian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse his followers. Hong then proclaimed the establishment of the

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, later shortened to the Heavenly Kingdom or Heavenly Dynasty, was an unrecognised rebel kingdom in China and a Chinese Christian theocratic absolute monarchy from 1851 to 1864, supporting the overthrow of the Q ...

and the rebellion spread to several provinces with amazing speed. The following year, the

started in

North China North China, or Huabei () is a geographical region of China, consisting of the provinces of Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia. Part of the larger region of Northern China (''Beifang''), it lies north of the Qinling–Hu ...

. Unlike the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels, the Nian movement lacked a clear political program, but they became a serious threat to the Qing capital,

, with the mobility of their cavalry-based armies. The Qing imperial forces suffered repeated defeats at the hands of both rebel movements.

Rebellions and wars

In 1853, the Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and for a while it seemed that Beijing would fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeated and the situation stabilized. The Xianfeng Emperor dispatched several prominent mandarins, such as

Zeng Guofan Zeng Guofan, Marquis Yiyong (; 26 November 1811 – 12 March 1872), birth name Zeng Zicheng, courtesy name Bohan, was a Chinese statesman and military general of the late Qing dynasty. He is best known for raising and organizing the Xiang ...

and the Mongol general

Sengge Rinchen Sengge Rinchen (1811 – 18 May 1865) or Senggelinqin ( mn, Сэнгэринчен, ᠰᠡᠩᠭᠡᠷᠢᠨᠴᠢᠨ) was a Mongol nobleman and general who served under the Qing dynasty during the reigns of the Daoguang, Xianfeng and Tongzhi em ...

, to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limited success. The biggest

revolt Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...

of the

Miao people The Miao are a group of linguistically-related peoples living in Southern China and Southeast Asia, who are recognized by the government of China as one of the 56 official ethnic groups. The Miao live primarily in southern China's mountains, in ...

against Chinese rule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region until finally put down in 1873. In 1856, an attempt to regain Nanjing was defeated and the

Panthay Rebellion The Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873), also known as the Du Wenxiu Rebellion (Tu Wen-hsiu Rebellion), was a rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other (Muslim as well as non-Muslim) ethnic groups against the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in southwe ...

broke out in

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...

. Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggered the

. Anglo-French forces, after inciting a few battles (not all victories for them) on the coast near

Tianjin Tianjin (; ; Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Tientsin (), is a municipality and a coastal metropolis in Northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the nine national central cities in Mainland China, with a total popu ...

, attempted "negotiation" with the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any colonial demands. He delegated

Prince Gong Yixin (11January 1833– 29May 1898), better known in English as PrinceKung or Gong, was an imperial prince of the Aisin Gioro clan and an important statesman of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in China. He was a regent of the empire from 1861 to 18 ...

for several negotiations but relations broke down completely when a British diplomat,

Sir Harry Parkes Sir Harry Smith Parkes (24 February 1828 – 22 March 1885) was a British diplomat who served as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul General of the United Kingdom to the Empire of Japan from 1865 to 1883 and the Chines ...

, was arrested during negotiations on 18 September. The Anglo-French invasion clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou District, Beijing. On 21 September, at the

Battle of Palikao The Battle of Palikao (french: La bataille de Palikao; ) was fought at the bridge of Palikao by Anglo-French forces against the Qing Empire during the Second Opium War on the morning of 21 September 1860. It allowed Western forces to take the c ...

, Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including his elite Mongol cavalry, were completely annihilated after several doomed frontal charges against the concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which entered Beijing on 6 October. On 18 October 1860, the British and French forces went on to loot and burn the

and

Summer Palace The Summer Palace () is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing. It was an imperial garden in the Qing dynasty. Inside includes Longevity Hill () Kunming Lake and Seventeen Hole Bridge. It covers an expanse of , three-quarte ...

. Upon learning about this news, the Xianfeng Emperor's health quickly deteriorated. During the Xianfeng Emperor's reign, China lost part of

Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...

to the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War ...

. In 1858, according to the

Treaty of Aigun The Treaty of Aigun (Russian: Айгунский договор; ) was an 1858 treaty between the Russian Empire and the Qing dynasty that established much of the modern border between the Russian Far East and China by ceding much of Manchur ...

, the territory between the

Stanovoy Range The Stanovoy Range (russian: Станово́й хребе́т, ''Stanovoy khrebet''; sah, Сир кура; ), is a mountain range located in the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Federal District. It is also known as Sükebayatur a ...

and the

Amur The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeastern China (Inner Manchuria). The Amur proper is long ...

River was ceded to Russia, and in 1860, according to the

Treaty of Beijing The Convention of Peking or First Convention of Peking is an agreement comprising three distinct treaties concluded between the Qing dynasty of China and Great Britain, France, and the Russian Empire in 1860. In China, they are regarded as ...

, the same thing happened also to the area east of the

Ussuri The Ussuri or Wusuli (russian: Уссури; ) is a river that runs through Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais, Russia and the southeast region of Northeast China. It rises in the Sikhote-Alin mountain range, flowing north and forming part of the ...

River. After that treaty, the Russians founded the city of

Vladivostok Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Golden Horn Bay on the Sea of Japan, ...

in the area they had annexed. While negotiations with the European powers were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor and his imperial entourage fled to

Jehol province Rehe (), also romanized as Jehol, was a former Chinese special administrative region and province. Administration Rehe was north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. Its capital and largest city was Chengde. The second ...

in the name of conducting the annual imperial hunting expedition. As his health worsened, the emperor's ability to govern also deteriorated, and competing ideologies in court led to the formation of two distinct factions — one led by the senior official Sushun and the princes Zaiyuan and

Duanhua Duanhua (Manchu: ''Duwanhūwa''; 1807 – 1861) was a Manchu prince and regent of the Qing dynasty. Life Duanhua was born in the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan as the third son of Ulgungga (烏爾恭阿), a descendant of Jirgalang, a nephew of N ...

, and the other led by Noble Consort Yi, who was supported by the general

Ronglu Ronglu (6 April 1836 – 11 April 1903), courtesy name Zhonghua, was a Manchu political and military leader of the late Qing dynasty. He was born in the Guwalgiya clan, which was under the Plain White Banner of the Manchu Eight Banners. ...

and the

Bannermen Bannerman is a name of Scottish origin (see Clan Bannerman) and may refer to Places ;Canada * Bannerman, Edmonton, a neighbourhood in Edmonton, Canada ;United States * Bannerman, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community * Bannerman's Castle, an a ...

of the Yehe Nara clan.

Death

The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861, from a short life of overindulgence, at the

Chengde Mountain Resort Chengde Mountain Resort in Chengde (; Manchu: ''Halhūn be jailara gurung''), is a large complex of imperial palaces and gardens situated in the Shuangqiao District of Chengde in northeastern Hebei province, northern China, about 225 km northea ...

, 230 kilometres northeast of

. His successor was his surviving six-year-old son, Zaichun. A day before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had summoned Sushun and his supporters to his bedside and gave them an imperial edict that dictated the power structure during his son's minority. The edict appointed eight men – Zaiyuan,

, Jingshou, Sushun, Muyin, Kuangyuan, Du Han and Jiao Youying – as an eight-member regency council to aid Zaichun, who was later enthroned as the

Tongzhi Emperor The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), born Zaichun of the Aisin Gioro clan, was the ninth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted ...

. Xianfeng gave the eight men the power of regency, but their edicts would have to be endorsed by Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen. By tradition, after the death of an emperor, the emperor's body was to be accompanied to the capital by the regents. Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen, who were now known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an travelled ahead to

and planned a coup with

that ousted the eight regents. Empress Dowager Cixi then effectively ruled China over the subsequent 47 years as a regent. The Xianfeng Emperor was interred in the

Eastern Qing Tombs The Eastern Qing tombs (; ) are an imperial mausoleum complex of the Qing dynasty located in Zunhua, northeast of Beijing. They are the largest, most complete, and best preserved extant mausoleum complex in China. Altogether, five emperors ( Sh ...

, 125 kilometres/75 miles east of

, in the Ding (定; lit. "Quietude")

mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be cons ...

complex.

Legacy

The Qing dynasty continued to decline during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Rebellions in the country, which began the first year of his reign, would not be quelled until well into the reign of the

and resulted in millions of deaths. The Xianfeng Emperor also had to deal with the British and French and their ever-growing appetite to expand trade further into China. The Xianfeng Emperor, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor, understood very little about Europeans and their mindset. He viewed non-Chinese as inferior and regarded the repeated requests by the Europeans for the establishment of diplomatic relations as an offence. When the Europeans introduced the long-held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, the Xianfeng Emperor quickly rebuffed the idea. At the time of his death, he had not met with any foreign dignitary. Despite his tumultuous decade of reign, the Xianfeng Emperor was commonly seen as the last Qing emperor to have held paramount authority, ruling in his own right. The reigns of his son and subsequent successors were overseen by regents, a trend present until the fall of the Qing dynasty.

Family

Empress *

Empress Xiaodexian Empress Xiaodexian (12 April 1831 – 24 January 1850), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Sakda clan, was a consort of the Xianfeng Emperor. Life Family background Empress Xiaodexian's personal name was not recorded in history. Her family ...

(孝德顯皇后) of the Sakda clan (薩克達氏) *

Empress Xiaozhenxian Empress Xiaozhenxian (12 August 1837 – 8 April 1881), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the wife and empress consort of Yizhu, the Xianfeng Emperor. She was Empress consort of Qing from 1 ...

(孝貞顯皇后) of the

clan (鈕祜祿氏) * Empress Xiaoqinxian (孝欽顯皇后) of the

Yehe Nara Nara (Manchu: , Wade-Giles: nara hala, Chinese: , or ) is a clan name shared by a number of royal Manchu clans. The four tribes of the Hūlun confederation () – Hada (), Ula (), Hoifa () and Yehe () – were all ruled by clans bearing this ...

clan (葉赫那拉), Personal name: Xingzhen (杏貞) ; commonly known as

(慈禧皇太后) ** Zaichun, the

(穆宗載淳; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), first son Imperial Noble Consort *

Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing (2 April 1837 – 26 December 1890), of the Manchu Plain Red Banner Tatara clan, was a consort of the Xianfeng Emperor. She was six years his junior. Life Family background Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing's ...

(莊靜皇貴妃) of the Tatara clan (他他拉氏) ** Princess Rong'an of the First Rank (榮安固倫公主; 20 June 1855 – 5 February 1875), first daughter *** Married

Fuzhen Fuzhen (符珍; died 1909), also known as Ruiyu, born of the Manchu Guwalgiya clan, was a noble of the Qing dynasty. He was a member of the Bordered Yellow Banner of the Qing dynasty's Eight Banners, and a direct descendant of Fiongdon (費� ...

(d. 1909) of the Manchu

Gūwalgiya Gūwalgiya ( Manchu Chinese: ; ) was one of the most powerful Manchu clans. It is often listed by historians as the first of the eight prominent Manchu clans of the Qing dynasty. After the demise of the dynasty, some of its descendants siniciz ...

clan in September/October 1873 * Imperial Noble Consort Duanke (端恪皇貴妃) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏) Noble Consort * Noble Consort Wen (玟貴妃) of the Xu clan (徐氏) ** ''Prince Min of the Second Rank'' (憫郡王; 8 January 1859), second son * Noble Consort Wan (婉貴妃) of the

Socoro Socoro ( mnc, ''Socoro Hala''; ) is a Manchu clan and surname in China. Socoro clan is a branch of Hešeri clan. The surname Suo (索), Cao (曹) and Shi (石) have been used for short for generations. Notable figures Males Females Imperi ...

clan (索綽絡氏) Consort * Consort Lu (璷妃) of the

clan (葉赫那拉氏) * Consort Ji (吉妃) of the Wang clan (王氏) ** ''Miscarriage'' (''male''; 1859 or 1860) * Consort Xi (禧妃) of the Cahala clan (察哈喇氏), Personal Name: Haitangchun (海棠春) * Consort Qing (慶妃) of the Zhang clan (張氏) Imperial Concubine * Imperial Concubine Yun (雲嬪) of the Wugiya clan (武佳氏), Personal Name: Qiyun (绮云) * Imperial Concubine Rong (容嬪,) of the

Irgen Gioro Irgen Gioro (; ) is a Manchu clan and family name, which was officially categorized as a "notable clan", and member of the eight great houses of the Manchu nobility in Qing dynasty. Sibe and Nanai people also has Irgen Gioro as their family na ...

clan (伊爾根覺羅氏) * Imperial Concubine Shu (璹嬪) of the

clan (葉赫那拉氏) * Imperial Concubine Yu (玉嬪) of the

clan (葉赫那拉氏) First Class Female Attendant * First Class Female Attendant Chun (瑃常在) of the Ming'an clan (暝谙氏) * First Class Female Attendant Xin (鑫常在) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳氏) * First Class Female Attendant Ping (玶常在) of the

clan (伊尔根觉罗氏)

Ancestry

References

Citations

Sources

* * * * * * ; Books about

* Sterling Seagraves "Dragon Lady" * Maria Warners "The Dragon Empress: Life and Times of Tz'u-Hsi, 1835 – 1908, Empress of China". * Anchee Min "Empress Orchid"

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Xianfeng 1831 births 1861 deaths Qing dynasty emperors 19th-century Chinese monarchs 1850s in China 1860s in China Daoguang Emperor's sons