Wiyot language
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Wiyot (also Wishosk) or Soulatluk (lit. "your jaw") is an
Algic language The Algic languages (also Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok or Algonquian–Ritwan) are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily, dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to ...
Campbell (1997:152) spoken by the
Wiyot The Wiyot ( Wiyot: Wíyot, Chetco-Tolowa: Wee-’at xee-she or Wee-yan’ Xee-she’, Euchre Creek Tututni: Wii-yat-dv-ne - "Mad River People“, Yurok: Weyet) are an indigenous people of California living near Humboldt Bay, California and a s ...
people of Humboldt Bay,
California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
. The language's last native speaker, Della Prince, died in 1962. Wiyot, along with its geographical neighbor, the
Yurok language Yurok (also Chillula, Mita, Pekwan, Rikwa, Sugon, Weitspek, Weitspekan) is an Algic language. It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California, most of whom now spe ...
, were first identified as relatives of the
Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Indigenous languages of the Americas, indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic languages, Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language f ...
by
Edward Sapir Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American Jewish anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States. Sa ...
in 1913, though this classification was disputed for decades in what came to be known as the "Ritwan controversy". Due to the enormous geographical separation of Wiyot and Yurok from all other Algonquian languages, the validity of their genetic link was hotly contested by leading Americanist linguists; as
Ives Goddard Robert Hale Ives Goddard III (born 1941) is a linguist and a curator emeritus in the Department of Anthropology of the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution. He is widely considered the leading expert on the Algonqui ...
put it, the issue "has profound implications for the prehistory of North America". However, by the 1950s, the genetic relationship between the Algonquian languages and Wiyot and Yurok had been established to the satisfaction of most, if not all, researchers, giving rise to the term "Algic" to refer to the Algonquian languages together with Wiyot and Yurok. The Wiyot Tribal Government is fostering a revival of the language through videos, online dictionaries, and an annual Wiyot language calendar.


Phonology


Consonants

Karl V. Teeter Karl van Duyn Teeter (March 2, 1929 – April 20, 2007) was an American linguistics, linguist known especially for his work on the Algic languages. Life and work Teeter was born in Berkeley, California, to Charles Edwin Teeter, Jr., a college p ...
published the first modern descriptive grammar of Wiyot in 1964. His data, supplied by Della Prince soon before her death, was crucial to the establishment of the genetic relationship between Algonquin and Wiyot, and effectively ended the scholarly conflict surrounding the issue. All of the linguistic data below comes from his work, published by the University of California Press. The consonants of Wiyot, as recorded by Teeter, are given in this chart, with a Practical Orthography in boldface and the
IPA IPA commonly refers to: * India pale ale, a style of beer * International Phonetic Alphabet, a system of phonetic notation * Isopropyl alcohol, a chemical compound IPA may also refer to: Organizations International * Insolvency Practitioners ...
equivalents in brackets. * The grapheme is used for the fricative word-initially and for the stop otherwise.


Vowels


Syllables

Wiyot
syllable A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered the phonological "bu ...
s always begin with consonants or consonant clusters, which are followed by a vowel. This vowel may be long or short. If the vowel is short, the syllable must end in the same consonant that begins the next syllable. Therefore, all non-final syllables are heavy, acquiring either a CVV or CVC structure. Word final syllables may or may not be heavy. These syllable-final consonants are lengthened in speech, but do not appear as doubled letters in transcription. For example, in the word , meaning 'flounder', the 'l' is lengthened. Thus, the first syllable ends with 'l', and the second begins with 'l', and both syllables are considered heavy. Teeter describes the "weight" of Wiyot syllables as one of the language's most salient features for speakers of English. He adds that voiced sounds tend to be exceptionally long in spoken Wiyot, a feature that adds to the perceived phonological heaviness of the language.


Pitch accent

In speech, Wiyot words are grouped into
pitch accent A pitch-accent language, when spoken, has word accents in which one syllable in a word or morpheme is more prominent than the others, but the accentuated syllable is indicated by a contrasting pitch ( linguistic tone) rather than by loudness ( ...
phrases, which are separated by commas when written. Within these phrases, regular patterns of syllable stress and vowel length emerge. Stress, pitch and vowel length increase gradually from the beginning of the accent phrase until the culminative syllable in the accent phrase is reached, after which pitch precipitously drops, except when it is the final syllable of the accent phrase. In such a situation, the accent phrase would end on a high pitch. The vowel of the culminative syllable bears either an acute or grave accent, the latter indicating a high pitch, and the former a high pitch which rapidly falls. The grave accent appears only when the culminative syllable is the final syllable of a breath group, which are groups of accent phrases. The ends of breath groups are marked by periods, and are notably lower in relative pitch. Accent phrases towards the end of a breath group follow the same pattern of gradual lengthening and pitch increase, though the relative pitch is lower with respect to the preceding accent phrases. Breath groups end with a general weakening of articulatory force, which is followed by a noticeable interval of silence. Despite the intricacies of pitch involved in Wiyot, the total pitch range of the spoken language is only a fraction of that of English, for example.


Example

'She began to throw aside the boards of the house, thinking in vain, 'I'll take that man back.' She never took him back.' This fragment of Wiyot narration consists of two breath groups: the first contains five accent phrases, the second contains just one. The first accent phrase of the first breath group, , carries the stress on the fourth syllable. The vowel of this 'culminative syllable', an 'e', carries an acute accent and is pronounced at a higher pitch than any other in the phrase. It is also lengthened relative to the other vowels in the phrase. After this culminative syllable, pitch and length decrease rapidly through the end of the accent phrase. The second breath group contains just one accent phrase, . Here, the culminative syllable comes at the end of the accent phrase, indicating that pitch and length increase through the phrase until the final vowel, which starts on a high pitch that rapidly falls. This articulation is indicated with a grave accent over the 'i'. These accents only appears when the culminative syllable is the last syllable of a breath group, as in this example.


Processes

Teeter recorded many morphonemic processes that Wiyot words and phrases undergo. A few are listed below. Aspirated stops, such as ʰand ʰ undergo deaspiration when in word-final position. Thus, in the word , , meaning 'spruce root' is aspirated, opʰ when the same morpheme appears in isolation, though, it is articulated without the final aspiration, op When any element ending in /o/ is followed by another element beginning in /b/ or /w/, /la/ is inserted. In the example , 'I don't see it', follows the negating element , and itself conveys no meaning. When any two vowels, or any three consonants that cannot occur as a phonological cluster, are combined due to morphological construction, the general tendency is for the second element to be eliminated. This is not true in the case of a laryngeal combining with a consonant cluster, in that order. In such a situation, the initial laryngeal element is eliminated.


Morphology

Wiyot is a highly synthetic,
agglutinative In linguistics, agglutination is a morphological process in which words are formed by stringing together morphemes, each of which corresponds to a single syntactic feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called agglutinative langu ...
language. Words or, more specifically, accent phrases, are formed by joining stems and
affix In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ar ...
es. Wiyot employs both prefixation and suffixation, meaning that affixes appear both before and after stems. Both verb and noun forms are constructed this way, though the particulars of each system are different.


Verb Morphology


Stems

Stems are non-affixal
morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful Constituent (linguistics), constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistics, linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology (linguistics), morphology. In English, morphemes are ...
s, and can appear individually or as compounds. For example, , meaning 'out', can appear as the only stem of a given word, or be joined to another stem, such as , 'go'. Their compound, , 'go out', is also a stem. Stems are either initial or medial. Initial stems may appear, as their name implies, as the first or only stems in a given word. Most stems belong to this class. , for example, is the initial stem in the above-mentioned compound . All initial stems start with a consonant. Medial stems may not appear as the initial or sole stem in a word, and therefore must be combined with an initial. Medials, such as , always begin with a vowel. Medial stems may also occur as the second member of a compound with a special initial . This compound has essentially the same meaning as the medial itself. For example, the medial , meaning 'throw' or 'jump', can appear with an initial 'l-' as , meaning 'throw'.


Affixes

Wiyot affixes are classified as either derivational,
inflection In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and defin ...
al or
syntactic In linguistics, syntax () is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency), ...
. Derivational affixes are attached to stems and serve to classify them. Together, stems and derivational affixes form 'themes', which can be further modified by inflectional and syntactic affixes. The stem , meaning 'laugh', may take the derivational affix and become , or 'laugh at'. Thus, serves to create an impersonal
transitive verb A transitive verb is a verb that accepts one or more objects, for example, 'cleaned' in ''Donald cleaned the window''. This contrasts with intransitive verbs, which do not have objects, for example, 'panicked' in ''Donald panicked''. Transiti ...
theme with as the stem. There are many derivational affixes, most of which correspond to a complicated set of rules: stems can belong to one of eleven categories that determines which set of derivational affixes it may take. Therefore, to form an impersonal transitive verb theme like , for example, there are 10 other possible affixes that occur with stems from other categories. Furthermore, certain derivational affixes occur only when affixed to specific stems. Inflectional affixes encode the subject and object of the theme. Wiyot makes a sharp distinction between definite and indefinite subjects, and each of these classes has its own set of inflectional affixes. Certain classes of Wiyot verbs can also take benefactive and instrumental affixes. The benefactive characterizes the verb as being done to a third person object for the benefit of a second object. Instrumental affixes convey that action is performed using a device of some kind. Instrumental and benefactive affixes directly encode for the subject of the verb and thus do not appear with inflectional affixes for subject. Therefore, the most inflectional affixes a verb can possibly take is three. Inflectional affixes can be either terminal or nonterminal in nature. Terminal affixes, when added to verb or noun themes, can complete words, while nonterminal affixes require additional affixation. The noun form , meaning 'he/she laughs at me', contains two inflectional affixes that modify the verb form shown above: is the nonterminal suffix that encodes a first person object, and is the terminal suffix for a third person subject. Syntactic affixes, many of which are prefixes, also known as preverbs, are affixed to verb themes and often convey aspectual information. For example, in the phrase , meaning 'finally it starts to get dark', the verb theme , 'to get dark', is modified by two syntactic suffixes, and . means 'finally', and marks the
inchoative aspect Inchoative aspect ( abbreviated or ) is a grammatical aspect, referring to the beginning of a state. It can be found in conservative Indo-European languages such as Latin and Lithuanian, and also in Finnic languages or European derived languages ...
, translated here as 'it starts'. is also inflected for the third person subject by the inflectional terminal suffix . Verbs form can take up to four preverbs, which appear in a fixed order according to their syntactic class. There are nine classes in total, with the lower numbers appearing earlier in the verb form. Some examples of preverbs include: Class I: , the
cessative aspect The cessative aspect or terminative aspect is a grammatical aspect referring to the end of a state. It is the opposite of the inchoative aspect and conveys the idea of "to stop doing something" or "to finish doing something". In Yaqui The Yaq ...
. 'They just got through eating' Class II: , the perfect tense. 'He had come down.' Class VI: , the emphatic negative. 'They never eat.' The position numbers fix the relative positions of these preverbs when they appear in combination. Thus, to create a perfect cessative construction using the inflected verb theme , would have to precede to form , 'He had just come down'. Preverbs, in addition to aspect, often convey tense and mood.


Noun Morphology


Derivation

Wiyot nouns are often derived from verbs, and typically serve to fill out and expound upon the various relationships and categories already expressed in verb forms. Like verbs, nouns consist of stems and affixes.
Nominalization In linguistics, nominalization or nominalisation is the use of a word that is not a noun (e.g., a verb, an adjective or an adverb) as a noun, or as the head of a noun phrase. This change in functional category can occur through morphological tr ...
is the most important process in Wiyot for deriving nouns. Typically, nouns are created from verbs by adding one of twelve nominalizing affixes to the verb complex. The most common nominalizing suffix is ''ił'', and there are many examples of nominalized forms that employ it. (''ił'' is also the most common third person inflectional suffix in Wiyot, and both the nominalizing and inflectional suffixes appear in the same position. This gives rise to some degree of morphological ambiguity in many cases.) ''bacawáłiksił'' is a nominalized form meaning 'swan'; it is derived from the homonymous verb meaning 'he makes it dry'. ''bacigadarawił'' means 'robin', and is derived from the homonymous verb meaning 'he is dry on the eyes'. A less ambiguous, more obviously derived example employs the nominalizing suffix ''ihla'': ''táthotawihla'', meaning 'football', is the nominalized form of the verb meaning 'it goes with a kicking motion'.


Inflection

Nouns are inflected for four categories: the subordinative,
possessive A possessive or ktetic form (abbreviated or ; from la, possessivus; grc, κτητικός, translit=ktētikós) is a word or grammatical construction used to indicate a relationship of possession in a broad sense. This can include strict owne ...
, locative and
vocative In grammar, the vocative Grammatical case, case (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed, or occasionally for the noun modifiers ...
. Subordinative inflection, indicated by a suffix added to a noun theme, expresses that the inflected noun belongs to another nominal concept- a person, perhaps. Nouns can also be subordinated to an indefinite nominal concept using the suffix . The definite subordinative suffixes are , and . An example of a definite subordinate inflection is the noun form , meaning 'his teeth', which consists of the subordinate noun theme and the inflectional suffix . Possessive inflection is conveyed using prefixes. There are three different sets of possessive prefixes, though the majority of Wiyot nouns are inflected using only one of these. This most productive set distinguishes three
persons A person ( : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, ...
: first- ; second- ; third- . The final seen in these stems is often dropped in spoken Wiyot. , meaning 'your strawberries', includes the second person pronoun from this first set, . The second set applies only to
inalienable ''InAlienable'' is a 2007 science fiction film with horror and comic elements, written and executive produced by Walter Koenig, and directed by Robert Dyke. It was the first collaboration of Koenig and Dyke since their 1989 production of ''Moon ...
nouns, or nouns that must be possessed, such as body parts. Curiously, the words for 'wood' and 'enemy' belong in this category of Wiyot nouns, as well. The set only distinguishes two persons: first- ; second- . Third person possession of inalienable nouns tends to be conveyed using a subordinative derivational suffix. Pronouns from this second set tend to replace the initial consonants of the themes they are affixed to. Thus, in the noun form , meaning 'your teeth', the second person possessive prefix for inalienable nouns replaces the initial consonant of , 'teeth'. Within the second set, there is also an indefinite or
absolutive In grammar, the absolutive case (abbreviated ) is the case of nouns in ergative–absolutive languages that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative ...
prefix . The third set is limited largely to kinship terms and the word for 'nose'. In the third set, the second person possessive is articulated by aspirating the initial phoneme of the noun theme. Thus, , meaning 'maternal aunt', becomes ʰul 'your maternal aunt'. There is no marking of a first person possessive in this category, and, as in the second set, a third person possessive is indicated by the use of a subordinative derivational suffix. Locative inflection is indicated by one of two affixes: the suffix and the prefix . Both have general meanings which can be translated as 'at, on, near, above, over, under, behind, etc.'. is employed with the great majority of Wiyot nouns, as in , meaning 'on the hill', and , 'in the smoke'. is used with the inalienable nouns and kinship terms mentioned above. 'On your teeth' is expressed ( appears after all prefixes that are followed by ''b'' or ''w''). There is a single vocative prefix, , that occurs with kinship terms. It appears affixed to , meaning 'mother', in the form .


Pronouns

Wiyot personal
pronoun In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not co ...
s are generally used to emphasize the subjects or objects indicated in verb forms. The personal pronouns distinguish three persons, each with a singular and plural variant. Thus, this set of pronouns is frequently used to clarify number in verb forms, as Wiyot verbs themselves do not. The first person plural pronoun , for example, is often employed alongside verb complexes that are inflected for the indefinite third person or impersonal, such as in the example , meaning 'we saw'. Here, is inflected for an indefinite third person, though unambiguously expresses 'we'.


Syntax

Verbs are the core of Wiyot grammar, and verbal phrases are the most important part of Wiyot sentences. Verb complexes- inflected verb themes combined with syntactic affixes- form sentences along with nominal phrases. Verb phrases themselves frequently encode subject, object and instrumental information, but the actual entities being signified are rarely named. Noun and pronoun phrases serve to provide this information. The transitivity of the verb complex determines the classes of noun forms that may occur in the sentence; nominal phrases serve to specify subject and object information, so
intransitive verb In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb whose context does not entail a direct object. That lack of transitivity distinguishes intransitive verbs from transitive verbs, which entail one or more objects. Additionally, intransitive verbs are ...
s, which lack inflection for object, would not appear in combination with a nominal phrase for the object. Preverb sequences, which consist of up to four syntactic prefixes, are the first step in expanding the derived and inflected verbal form. A great deal of morphological information can be conveyed in this prefixed element: aspect, mode and tense are all commonly expressed using preverbs, as is quantitative information and
polarity Polarity may refer to: Science *Electrical polarity, direction of electrical current *Polarity (mutual inductance), the relationship between components such as transformer windings * Polarity (projective geometry), in mathematics, a duality of ord ...
. Nominal forms round out and complete Wiyot sentences, frequently serving as adjuncts to verbal phrases. Nouns are categorized as either principal or modifying phrases. Principal phrases include nominalized forms and possessive phrases, while modifying phrases typically refer to a time or place in which a verbal phrase occurs. For example, is a principal nominal form meaning 'large, longish object'; is a modifying nominal form meaning 'right now'. Pronominal phrases further elucidate verbal complexes, and can be employed as noun forms themselves. , for example, can take the nominalizing affix and be treated as a nominal phrase. These elements are combined relatively freely to form sentences; the limited corpus of Wiyot text indicates a wide variety of syntactic organizations. Most Wiyot sentences are in the
indicative mood A realis mood (abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Most ...
, as are all of the examples given below. Literally translated, the sentences means 'but they don't see it here', though the verb form is here employed idiomatically to mean 'grow', giving a translation of 'but it doesn't grow here'. is a modifying nominal phrase, translated in this example as 'here'; means 'here' and is an adversative postposition translated as 'but'. is the verbal phrase: is the negative preverb, from position class IV, and is an articular preverb, while is the verb 'see' inflected for the indefinite third person. . 'That white man is surprised about something'. is a nominal phrase meaning 'something'; it serves as the object of the sentence. is also a nominal phrase and serves to clarify the subject of the verbal phrase. is a demonstrative article meaning 'that'; means 'white man'. Finally, is a verb, 'to be surprised', inflected for the definite third person.


Revitalization

With the death of Della Prince in 1962, Wiyot became an
extinct language An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language has no living descendants. In contrast, a dead language is one that is no longer the native language of any community, even if it is still in use, li ...
. However, in recent years, the federally recognized
Wiyot tribe The Wiyot Tribe is a federally recognized tribe of Wiyot people. They are the aboriginal people of Humboldt Bay, Mad River and lower Eel River. ''Four Directions Institute.'' Retrieved 29 Sept 2013.Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. * Dixon, Roland; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913). New linguistic families in California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''5'', 1-26. * Elsasser, Albert B. (1978). Wiyot. In R. F. Heizer (Ed.), ''California'' (pp. 153–163). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 8) (W. C. Sturtevant (Ed.)). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. * Goddard, Ives. (1975). Algonquian, Wiyot, and Yurok: Proving a distant genetic relationship. In M. D. Kinkade, K. L. Hale, & O. Werner (Eds.), ''Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C. F. Voegelin'' (pp. 249–262). Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press. * Goddard, Ives. (1979). Comparative Algonquian. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment'' (pp. 70–132). Austin: University of Texas Press. * Goddard, Ives. (1990). Algonquian linguistic change and reconstruction. In P. Baldi (Ed.), ''Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology'' (pp. 99–114). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. * Golla, Victor. (2011). ''California Indian Languages''. Berkeley: University of California Press. . * Haas, Mary R. (1958). Algonkian-Ritwan: The end of a controversy. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''24'', 159-173. * * * Michelson, Truman. 1914. Two alleged Algonquian languages of California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''16'', 361-367. * Michelson, Truman. 1915. Rejoinder (to Edward Sapir). ''American Anthropologist'', ''17'', 4-8. * Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); . * Reichard, Gladys. 1925. Wiyot grammar and texts. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. * Sapir, Edward. 1913. Wiyot and Yurok, Algonkin languages of California. ''American Anthropologist'', ''15'', 617-646. * Sapir, Edward. (1915)a. Algonkin languages of California: A reply. ''American Anthropologist'', ''17'', 188-194. * Sapir, Edward. (1915)b. Epilogue. ''American Anthropologist'', ''17'', 198. * Teeter, Karl V. (1964)a. Algonquian languages and genetic relationship. In ''Proceedings of the ninth international congress of linguists'' (pp. 1026–1033). The Hague: Mouton. * Teeter, Karl V. (1964)b. ''The Wiyot language''. University of California publications in linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.


External links


Wiyot Tribe - LanguageWiyot language
overview at the '' Survey of California and Other Indian Languages''
OLAC resources in and about the Wiyot language
*

* * "It is the desire of the Live Your Language Alliance to hear and speak the traditional languages of the
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,
Yurok The Yurok (Karuk language: Yurúkvaarar / Yuru Kyara - "downriver Indian; i.e. Yurok Indian") are an Indigenous people from along the Klamath River and Pacific coast, whose homelands are located in present-day California stretching from Trinidad ...
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, Wiyot, Mattole, and
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." {{North American languages Algic languages Extinct languages of North America Indigenous languages of California Wiyot tribe 1962 disestablishments in California Languages extinct in the 1960s