The British Band was a mixed-nation group of Native Americans commanded by the Sauk leader Black Hawk, which fought against

Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rockf ...

and Michigan Territory

militias A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...

during the 1832

Black Hawk War The Black Hawk War was a conflict between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis (Fox), and Kickapoos, known as the " British Band", cros ...

. The band was composed of about 1,500 men, women, and children from the Sauk,

Meskwaki The Meskwaki (sometimes spelled Mesquaki), also known by the European exonyms Fox Indians or the Fox, are a Native American people. They have been closely linked to the Sauk people of the same language family. In the Meskwaki language, th ...

Fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...

, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, and Ottawa nations; about 500 of that number were warriors. Black Hawk had an alliance with the British that dated from the

War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States, United States of America and its Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous allies against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom ...

, giving them their colloquial name. The band crossed the

Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it fl ...

from Iowa into

in an attempt to reclaim their homeland and in violation of several treaties. Subsequently, both the Illinois and Michigan Territory militia were called up and the Black Hawk War ensued. The British Band was victorious at the

Battle of Stillman's Run The Battle of Stillman's Run, also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man's Creek, occurred in Illinois on May 14, 1832. The battle was named for the panicked retreat by Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 I ...

and the military engagements that followed were insignificant until the final two encounters: the Wisconsin Heights and the

Bad Axe River The Bad Axe River is a U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map, accessed May 13, 2011 tributary of the Mississippi River in southwestern Wisconsin in the United States. "Bad axe" is a tr ...

. Band members who survived the war were either imprisoned or returned home. All the prisoners taken following the conflict were released by

Winfield Scott Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786May 29, 1866) was an American military commander and political candidate. He served as a general in the United States Army from 1814 to 1861, taking part in the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the early s ...

at the end of August 1832, except Black Hawk who was taken east. In 1833 he dictated his autobiography, the first Native American autobiography published in the United States.

Background

Sauk warrior Black Hawk, the leader of a band of Sauks near Rock Island at

Saukenuk The Black Hawk State Historic Site, in Rock Island, Illinois, is adjacent to the historic site of the village of Saukenuk, the home of a band of Native Americans of the Sauk nation. It includes the John Hauberg Museum of Native American Life. T ...

, was a chief voice of opposition to the ceding of Native American lands to American

settler A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. A settler who migrates to an area previously uninhabited or sparsely inhabited may be described as a pioneer. Settl ...

s and the U.S. government. Black Hawk supported the invalidity of the Treaty of St. Louis of both the Sauk and

nations negotiated with the then

Indiana Territory The Indiana Territory, officially the Territory of Indiana, was created by a congressional act that President John Adams signed into law on May 7, 1800, to form an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, ...

Governor

William Henry Harrison William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States. Harrison died just 31 days after his inauguration in 1841, and had the shortest pres ...

. The treaty ceded territory, including Black Hawk's birthplace Saukenuk, to the United States. The Sauk traditionally had been a society that reached their decision-making via consensus. Their representatives exceeded the authorization of merely taking under consideration what terms the United States government might put forth, bring them back to reach a consensus and then return with their treaty terms. The lack of the tribe discussing the treaty prior to being made official made it invalid by Black Hawk and other members of the tribe. The representatives never had the tribal authorization to unilaterally cede its lands. During the

between the United Kingdom and the United States, Robert Dickson, an English fur trader, amassed a sizable force of Native Americans at Green Bay to assist the British in operations around the

Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River. There are five lak ...

. Most of the warriors Dickson assembled were from the Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Kickapoo and Ottawa tribes. Dickson conferred the rank of brevet

Brigadier General Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...

on Black Hawk.Smith, William Rudolph. ''The History of Wisconsin: In Three Parts, Historical, Documentary, and Descriptive'',
Google Books
, B. Brown: 1854, pp. 221–406. Retrieved 20 September 2007. He was given command of all Native Americans gathered at Green Bay, including the 200 Sauk warriors under Black Hawk's control. Black Hawk was then presented with a silk flag, a medal, and a written certificate of good behavior and alliance with the British. The certificate would be found 20 years later, after the

Battle of Bad Axe The Bad Axe Massacre was a massacre of Sauk (Sac) and Fox Indians by United States Army regulars and militia that occurred on August 1–2, 1832. This final scene of the Black Hawk War took place near present-day Victory, Wisconsin in the Uni ...

, carefully preserved along with a flag similar to the one Dickson gave to Black Hawk. During the 1812 war, Black Hawk and his warriors fought in several engagements with Henry Procter on the borders of

Lake Erie Lake Erie ( "eerie") is the fourth largest lake by surface area of the five Great Lakes in North America and the eleventh-largest globally. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also h ...

. He returned home to Saukenuk to find his rival Keokuk had become the tribe's war chief. After the war ended, Black Hawk signed a peace treaty in May 1816 that re-affirmed the treaty of 1804, a provision Black Hawk later protested ignorance of.Lewis, James.
Background
," The Black Hawk War of 1832, Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University''. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

Prelude to war

Despite opposition by Keokuk and the US authorities, Black Hawk's band returned to Saukenuk in 1830 following their winter hunt. A year later they returned again, and Illinois Governor John Reynolds proclaimed it an "invasion of the state." Responding to Illinois Governor John Reynolds' call, General

Edmund Pendleton Gaines Edmund Pendleton Gaines (March 20, 1777 – June 6, 1849) was a career United States Army officer who served for nearly fifty years, and attained the rank of major general by brevet. He was one of the Army's senior commanders during its format ...

brought his federal troops from

St. Louis, Missouri St. Louis () is the second-largest city in Missouri, United States. It sits near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers. In 2020, the city proper had a population of 301,578, while the bi-state metropolitan area, which e ...

to Saukenuk to insist on Black Hawk's immediate departure. Black Hawk left but soon returned to the west side of the Mississippi, threatened by Gaines' troops and an additional 1,400 militia called up by Reynolds on 25 June 1831. On 30 June, Black Hawk and the chiefs of the British Band were forced to sign a surrender agreement in which they promised to remain west of the Mississippi. At the end of 1831, stories spread throughout the settlements of the Upper

Valley that the British planned to aid Black Hawk in the event of a war with American settlers. According to U.S. Indian Agent Felix St. Vrain, a known ne'er-do-well named

Billy Caldwell Billy Caldwell, baptized Thomas Caldwell (March 17, 1782 – September 28, 1841), known also as ''Sauganash'' ( ne who speaksEnglish), was a British-Potawatomi fur trader who was commissioned captain in the Indian Department of Canada duri ...

had delivered a message to the Sauk which reported the alleged British intentions. The ''New Galenian'' of Galena reported that Black Hawk's band would receive aid and ammunition from the British, and the tale was widely believed. The militia commander at

Fort Armstrong A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...

, Major John Bliss, informed General Henry Atkinson of the rumor, and said a follower of Keokuk had reported to him that Black Hawk and

Neapope Neapope (''Na-pope'' meaning "Broth" in the Sauk language) was a spiritual leader of the Sauk tribe and advisor to Black Hawk during the Black Hawk War. Biography A prominent chieftain of the Sauk prior to the Black Hawk War, Neapope was first ...

were holding talks with bands of Potawatomi, Kickapoo, and Ho-Chunk. The talks mentioned the promises of the British, as well as word that the French Canadians intended to assist them.Trask, ''Black Hawk: The Battle for the Hear of America, pp.139–140. These events, combined with Black Hawk's 1812 alliance with the British, and occasional visits to Canada, attributed to his 1832 band becoming known by the moniker British Band.Black Hawk
Primary Source Materials, Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University''. Retrieved 20 September 2007. The term British Band was used frequently by American, Sauk, and Fox observers alike and served to distinguish Black Hawk's group from the rest of the tribes.

Black Hawk War

Forces

The British Band had three key leaders, Black Hawk, the Ho-Chunk prophet Wabokieshiek (White Cloud), and Neapope. There were seven civil chiefs besides Neapope and Wabokieshiek, and five war captains including Black Hawk. The other civil chiefs in the band were: Pamisseau, Weesheet, Chakeepashipabo, Checokalako, Ioway, Pamaho, and Towaunonne; the four other war captains were: Menacou, Makatauaupuat, Pashetowat, and Kinnekonnesaut.Matile, Roger.
U.S. troops begin pursuit of Black Hawk's band
" ''Ledger-Sentinel'' (

Oswego, Illinois Oswego is a village in Kendall and Will Counties, Illinois, United States. Per the 2020 census, the population was 34,485. Oswego is the largest municipality in Kendall County. It is a suburb of Chicago, Illinois. History In 1833, William Sm ...

), 10 May 2007. Retrieved 9 October 2007. The band was composed of about 500 warriors and 1,000 old men, women and children when they crossed the Mississippi on 5 April.Harmet, "Apple River Fort," p. 13-13.Lewis, James.
Introduction
," The Black Hawk War of 1832, Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University''. Retrieved 20 September 2007. The group included members of the Sauk,

and Kickapoo Nations. They crossed the river near the mouth of the

Iowa River The Iowa River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in the state of Iowa in the United States. It is about longU.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map , accessed May 13, 2011 and ...

and then followed the Rock River northeast. Along the way they passed the ruins of Saukenuk and headed for the village of Ho-Chunk prophet White Cloud. As the war progressed factions of other tribes would join, or attempt to join Black Hawk, and others would carry out acts of violence for their own personal reasons amidst the chaos of the war.May 21, Indian Creek, Ill.: Abduction of the Hall Sisters
" Historic Diaries: The Black Hawk War, ''Wisconsin State Historical Society''. Retrieved 20 September 2007.Matile, Roger.
The Black Hawk War: Massacre at Indian Creek
," ''Ledger-Sentinel'' (

), 31 May 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007. In one example a band of hostile Ho-Chunk intent on joining Black Hawk's Band attacked and killed the party of Felix St. Vrain after the outbreak of war in an event that became known as the

St. Vrain massacre The St. Vrain massacre was an incident in the Black Hawk War. It occurred near present-day Pearl City, Illinois, in Kellogg's Grove, on May 24, 1832. The massacre was most likely committed by Ho-Chunk warriors who were unaffiliated with Black ...

. This act, was, however, an exception as most Ho-Chunk sided with the United States during the Black Hawk War. The warriors that attacked St. Vrain's party acted with no authority or oversight from the Ho-Chunk nation.The Killing of Felix St. Vrain
" Historic Diaries: Black Hawk War, ''Wisconsin Historical Society''. Retrieved 20 September 2007. Sympathetic Potawatomi warriors also joined with Black Hawk's Band in the months between April and August.

Incursion

George Catlin - Múk-a-tah-mish-o-káh-kaik, Black Hawk, Prominent Sac Chief - 1985

When Black Hawk's Band crossed the Mississippi River from

Iowa Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to th ...

in April 1832 to return to their homeland in the Rock River Valley, it was under a British flag. Potawatomi Chief

Shabbona Shabbona (or Sha-bon-na), also known as ShaboneeMalden, Ontario, Canada. Observers at the time, from

George Davenport Colonel George Davenport, born George William King (1783 – July 4, 1845), was a 19th-century English-American sailor, frontiersman, fur trader, merchant, postmaster, US Army soldier, Indian agent, and city planner. A prominent and well-known ...

, to St. Vrain, were certain that Black Hawk's intentions were to wage war against the United States.Trask, ''Black Hawk: The Battle for the Heart of America'', pp. 152–156. Historians generally believe that a more decisive action by General Atkinson, charged with prosecuting the war, in stopping Black Hawk's Band from moving up the Rock River may have prevented the war.

Zachary Taylor Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850) was an American military leader who served as the 12th president of the United States from 1849 until his death in 1850. Taylor was a career officer in the United States Army, rising to th ...

made similar observations shortly after the war ended. In response to Black Hawk and his band's movements, Governor Reynolds issued a proclamation on 16 April, mustering five

brigade A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division. B ...

s of volunteers to form at Beardstown and to head north to force Black Hawk out of Illinois. Although one-third of all federal troops from the

United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the land warfare, land military branch, service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight Uniformed services of the United States, U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army o ...

were eventually involved in the conflict, the 9,000 soldiers from the

Illinois Militia In the United States, state defense forces are military units that operate under the sole authority of a state government. State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state. ...

provided the majority of U.S. combatants.Lewis, James.
The Black Hawk War of 1832
," Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University'', p. 2A. Retrieved 6 August 2007. The first named confrontation of the Black Hawk War occurred on 14 May 1832 and resulted in an unexpected victory for Black Hawk's band of Sauk and Fox warriors over the disorganized militia under the command of

Isaiah Stillman Isaiah Stillman (1793–15 April 1861) was an American Cavalry Major who led the Illinois militia in the first armed confrontation of the Black Hawk War against Black Hawk's Sauk Indian Band. The first armed confrontation would be named Batt ...

.''Wisconsin State Historical Society''.
May 14: Black Hawk's Victory at the Battle of Stillman's Run
" Historic Diaries: The Black Hawk War. Retrieved 20 September 2007. Soon after the

, at present-day Stillman Valley, the exaggerated claim that 2,000 "bloodthirsty warriors ... sweeping all northern Illinois with the bosom of destruction" sent shock waves of terror through the region. After this initial skirmish, Black Hawk led many of the civilians in his band to the Michigan Territory.''Illinois State Military Museum'',
Black Hawk War
," Historical Events. Retrieved 20 September 2007. On 19 May, the militia traveled up the Rock River trailing and searching for Black Hawk and his band. Several small skirmishes and massacres ensued over the next month in northern Illinois and present-day southern

Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...

before the militia was able to regain public confidence in battles at

Horseshoe Bend Horseshoe Bend may refer to: Places Australia * Horseshoe Bend, New South Wales, an inner city suburb in the City of Maitland in the Hunter Region * Horseshoe Bend Station, a pastoral lease that operates as a cattle station in the Alice Sprin ...

and Waddams Grove.James Stephenson Describes the Battle at Yellow Creek
Historic Diaries: The Black Hawk War, ''Wisconsin Historical Society''. Retrieved 31 July 2007. St Vrain grave 2006

Battles

Black Hawk himself led warriors in several battles, including Stillman's Run, the Battle of Apple River Fort on 24 June, the

Second Battle of Kellogg's Grove The second (symbol: s) is the unit of Time in physics, time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally t ...

on 25 June, and the final two battles at Wisconsin Heights and Bad Axe. Besides the major victory at Stillman's Run Black Hawk's Band was involved in several other battles and skirmishes during the Black Hawk War. Several of the small skirmishes and massacres that occurred following Stillman's Run were attributed to bands of Native Americans unaffiliated with Black Hawk's Band, though many were likely sympathetic or intent on joining him. The events at Spafford Farm were attributed to a band of Kickapoo loosely affiliated with the British Band. After the massacre, General Henry Atkinson was informed that Henry Dodge was to take over General Alexander Posey's brigade at Fort Hamilton. While Dodge was on his way to visit the brigade, he heard a rifle shot from a group of Native Americans. Dodge quickly returned to his command post and gathered as many men as he could to pursue the enemy. With Dodge in quick pursuit, a group of approximately 11 Native warriors criss-crossed the

Pecatonica River The Pecatonica River is a tributary of the Rock River, long,U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map accessed May 13, 2011 in southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois in the United States ...

until, finding flight hopeless, they prepared to make a stand at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.Lewis, James.
The Black Hawk War of 1832
," Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University'', p. 2B. Retrieved 20 September 2007. The battle at Horseshoe Bend and a small, largely insignificant militarily, battle at Waddams Grove, helped restore public confidence in the Illinois Militia after the victory by the British Band at Stillman's Run.June 16: Peter Parkinson Recalls the Battle of the Pecatonica
" Historic Diaries: The Black Hawk War, ''Wisconsin State Historical Society''. Retrieved 14 August 2007. The British Band attacked the

Apple River Fort Apple River Fort, today known as the Apple River Fort State Historic Site, was one of many frontier forts hastily completed by settlers in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin following the onset of the 1832 Black Hawk War. Located in presen ...

, where a pitched battle was fought resulting in Black Hawk withdrawing his forces. Subsequent fighting at Kellogg's Grove has been called victory for both sides and the skirmishes resulted in 8 dead militia men and at least 15 dead British Band warriors.Blackhawk's Last Battle in Illinois
," The Sugar-Pecatonica Rivers Basin: An Inventory of the Region's Resources, ''Illinois Department of Natural Resources'', Office of Realty and Environmental Planning, 1999. Retrieved 20 September 2007.''Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin'',
Google Books
, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1892. Retrieved 27 July 2007.Armstrong, Perry A. ''The Sauks and the Black Hawk War'',
Google Books
H.W. Rokker: 1887, p. 891. Retrieved 20 September 2007.Dement, John.
Report of the Battle at Kellogg's Grove
" Historic Diaries: Black Hawk War, 25 June: The Battle of Kellogg's Grove, ''Wisconsin Historical Society''. Originally published in: Whitney, Ellen M., ed. ''The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832'', Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1970, p.680. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

Defeat

On 21 July 1832, Illinois and Wisconsin militia men under the command of Generals

Henry Dodge Moses Henry Dodge (October 12, 1782 – June 19, 1867) was a Democratic member to the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate, Territorial Governor of Wisconsin and a veteran of the Black Hawk War. His son, Augustus C. Dodge, served a ...

and James D. Henry caught up with Black Hawk's British Band near present-day

Sauk City, Wisconsin Sauk City is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States, North America. The population was 3,518 as of the 2020 census. The first incorporated village in the state, the community was founded by Agoston Haraszthy and his business partner, R ...

.Cole, Harry Ellsworth, ed.
A Standard History of Sauk County, Wisconsin: Volume I
', Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1918, pp. 170–171. Available online vi
The State of Wisconsin Collection
University of Wisconsin. The clash became known as the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. Militarily, the battle was devastating for Black Hawk's band of warriors; including those who drowned during the melee, casualty estimates climbed as high as 70.Lewis, James.

," Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University'', p. 2C Retrieved 1 August 2007. Despite the relatively high casualties the battle did allow much of the Band, including many women and children, to escape across the

Wisconsin River The Wisconsin River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. At approximately 430 miles (692 km) long, it is the state's longest river. The river's name, first recorded in 1673 by Jacques Marquette as "Meskous ...

. The militia regrouped at Fort Blue Mounds and picked up Black Hawk's trail again on 28 July near

Spring Green, Wisconsin Spring Green is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,628 at the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Spring Green. Geography Spring Green is located at (43.177268, -90.067277). According ...

. When they finally caught up with the British Band, it would lead to the decisive clash of the war at Bad Axe. At the mouth of the

, hundreds of men, women and children would be killed by pursuing soldiers, their Indian allies, and a U.S.

gunboat A gunboat is a naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets, as opposed to those military craft designed for naval warfare, or for ferrying troops or supplies. History Pre-ste ...

.McCann, Dennis.
Black Hawk's name, country's shame lives on
" ''Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel'', 28 April 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

Aftermath

The members of the British Band, and the Fox, Kickapoo, Sauk and Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi that later joined them, suffered unknown numbers of dead during the war. While some died fighting, others were tracked down and killed by Sioux,

Menominee The Menominee (; mez, omǣqnomenēwak meaning ''"Menominee People"'', also spelled Menomini, derived from the Ojibwe language word for "Wild Rice People"; known as ''Mamaceqtaw'', "the people", in the Menominee language) are a federally recog ...

, Ho-Chunk, and other native tribes. Still others died of starvation or drowned during the Band's long trek up the Rock River toward the mouth of the Bad Axe. The entire British Band was not wiped out at Bad Axe; some survivors drifted back home to their villages. This was relatively simple for the Potawatomi and Ho-Chunk of the band. Many Sauk and Fox found return to their homes more difficult, and while some returned safely others were held in custody by the army. Prisoners, some taken at the Battle of Bad Axe, and others taken by U.S.-aligned Native American tribes in the following weeks, were taken to

. About 120 prisoners – men, women, and children, waited until the end of August to be released by General

.Lewis, James.
The Black Hawk War of 1832
," Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, ''Northern Illinois University'', p. 2D. Retrieved 20 September 2007. With most of the British Band dead and the rest captured or disbanded, the defeated Black Hawk was held in captivity at

Jefferson Barracks The Jefferson Barracks Military Post is located on the Mississippi River at Lemay, Missouri, south of St. Louis. It was an important and active U.S. Army installation from 1826 through 1946. It is the oldest operating U.S. military installation ...

with Neapope, White Cloud, and eight other leaders of the British Band. After 8 months, in April 1833 they were taken east, as ordered by then U.S. President

Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, he gained fame as ...

. The men traveled by steamboat, carriage, and

railroad Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport that transfers passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, which are incorporated in tracks. In contrast to road transport, where the vehicles run on a pre ...

, and met with large crowds wherever they went. Once in Washington, D.C., they met with Jackson and

Secretary of War The secretary of war was a member of the U.S. president's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War", had been appointed to serve the Congress of the ...

Lewis Cass, though their final destination was prison at

Fortress Monroe Fort Monroe, managed by partnership between the Fort Monroe Authority for the Commonwealth of Virginia, the National Park Service as the Fort Monroe National Monument, and the City of Hampton, is a former military installation in Hampton, Virg ...

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...

. They stayed only a few weeks at the prison, during which they mostly posed for multiple portraits by different artists. On 5 June 1833, the men were sent west by steamboat on a circuitous route that took them through many large cities. Again, the men were a spectacle everywhere they went, and met with huge crowds of people in cities such as New York,

Baltimore Baltimore ( , locally: or ) is the List of municipalities in Maryland, most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland, fourth most populous city in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, and List of United States cities by popula ...

and

Philadelphia Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania#Municipalities, largest city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the List of United States cities by population, sixth-largest city i ...

. Reaction in the west, however, was much different. For instance, in Detroit, a crowd burned and hanged

effigies An effigy is an often life-size sculptural representation of a specific person, or a prototypical figure. The term is mostly used for the makeshift dummies used for symbolic punishment in political protests and for the figures burned in certai ...

of the prisoners. Near the end of his captivity in 1833, Black Hawk told his life story to a government interpreter, which was edited by a local reporter and became the first Native American autobiography published in the United States.Black Hawk Remembers Village Life Along the Mississippi
" History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web, ''George Mason University''. Retrieved 20 September 2007. The ''Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak, or Black Hawk, Embracing the Traditions of his Nation, Various Wars in Which He Has Been Engaged, and His Account of the Cause and General History of the Black Hawk War of 1832, His Surrender, and Travels Through the United States. Also Life, Death and Burial of the Old Chief, Together with a History of the Black Hawk War'' was published in 1882 in

Oquawka, Illinois Oquawka is a village in Henderson County, Illinois, United States. The population was 1,371 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Henderson County. Oquawka is part of the Burlington, IA–IL Micropolitan Statistical Area. Geograph ...

, as interpreted by Antoine LeClair and edited by J.B. Patterson.Black Hawk; LeClair, Antoine, interpreter; Patterson, J. B., editor, ''Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak, or Black Hawk, Embracing the Traditions of his Nation, Various Wars in Which He Has Been Engaged, and His Account of the Cause and General History of the Black Hawk War of 1832, His Surrender, and Travels Through the United States. Also Life, Death and Burial of the Old Chief, Together with a History of the Black Hawk War'', J. B. Patterson, Oquawka, IL: 1882,
Table of Contents
). Retrieved 20 September 2007.

Notes

References

*Harmet, A. Richard.
Apple River Fort Site
National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form, 31 March 1997, HAARGIS Database, ''Illinois Historic Preservation Agency''. Retrieved 20 September 2007. *''Illinois State Military Museum'',

" Historical Events. Retrieved 6 August 2007. * {{Black Hawk War (1832) Black Hawk War History of Illinois Native American history of Illinois Sac and Fox Algonquian peoples Native American history