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Verethragna ( ae, 𐬬𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬚𐬭𐬀𐬖𐬥𐬀 ') is an Indo-Iranian deity.
The neuter noun ''verethragna'' is related to Avestan ''verethra'', 'obstacle' and ''verethragnan'', 'victorious'. Representing this concept is the divinity Verethragna, who is the hypostasis of "victory", and "as a giver of victory Verethragna plainly enjoyed the greatest popularity of old." In Zoroastrian Middle Persian, Verethragna became 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭 Warahrām, from which Vahram, Vehram, Bahram, Behram and other variants derive.
The word is cognate with the
In the astronomical and calendrical reforms of the Sasanian Empire, Sasanian (224-651 CE), the planet Mars was named Bahram. Zaehner attributes this to the syncretic influences of the Chaldean astral-theological system, where Babylonian Nergal is both the god of war and the name of the red planet. (see also: "Fatalistic" Zurvanism).
The only evidence of a cult appears in the first century account of Strabo, who reports, probably on authority of Nearchus, that the Carmania (region), Carmanians worshipped a divinity of victory (''Geographika'', 15.2.14). That this was Bahramb / Verethragna is unlikely if, as per Strabo, he was their "only god." However, the account does reveal that divinities of war were known to the people who were not of the Iranian plateau, evidence for which also comes from Herodotus (4.59.62).
Under the Seleucid Empire, Seleucids (330–150 BCE) and Parthia, Arsacids (250 BCE–226 CE), that is, in the Empires influenced by Hellenic culture, ''Verethragna'' was both identified as Ares and associated with Heracles, and given the Greek name ''Artagnes''. This syncretism is well attested in statuary and iconography, most notably in that of the inscription of Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, in which all three names occur together.
That Bahram was considered the patron divinity of travelers is perhaps reflected by the life-size rock sculpture of the divinity on the main highway at Behistun. There Bahram reclines with a goblet in his hand, a club at his feet, and a lion-skin beneath him.
In the early Sasanian period Bahram is still represented as the Greek Heracles. In the relief of Ardeshir I at Naqs-e Rajab III, Bahram appears as one of the two smaller figures between Ahura Mazda and the king. There, he has a lion's skin in his left hand and brandishes a club in his right. The other small figure – who appears to be paying homage to Bahram – is the future king Bahram I.
Bahram also appears as wings, or as a bird of prey, in the crowns of the Sasanian kings. This iconography first appears in the crown of Bahram II which also bears the name of the divinity. A similar image is adopted by Peroz I, Peroz (whose name also means 'victorious') as well as by Khosrau II, Khosrau Parwez (again, Parwez meaning 'ever-victorious'). Similarly, boar and eagle heads on caps crown the heads of princes. Boar figures are widespread in Sasanian art, appearing in everything from textiles to stucco and in silver ornaments, coins, and seals. Other animal motifs have been found that recall the aspects of Bahram (see the ten forms of Bahram #In the Avesta, in the Avesta, above). The bird motif on Sasanian-era fire altars are also believed to represent Bahram.
The interpretation of the divinity was once one of the more widely debated fields in Zoroastrian scholarship since the theories of origin reflected a radical revolution in ethical, moral and religious values.
Primarily because the Avestan adjective ''verethragnan'' ('victorious') had a corresponding Vedic term ''vrtrahan'' where it appeared "preponderantly [as] a qualification of Indra", Zoroastrians and Hindus accept that in Indo-Iranian times there existed the warrior god ''Indra'' and that Avestan ''Verethragna'' might be analogous to that divine figure. The Sanskrit cognate of Verethragna is Vritraghna, which is an epithet for Indra in Vedic literature, and he too is the destroyer of "Vritra", an Asura whose name literally means obstacle.
But western scholars oppose this identification. In the Avesta, it is the hero warrior-priest ''Fereydun'' who battles the serpent ''Zahhak, Aži Dahāka'' (which, for the virtue of 'Azi' being cognate with Sanskrit 'Ahi', snake, is – by proponents of the theory - associated with Vedic Vritra). One Western scholar claims that, in the Vedas, the epithet 'hero' (''sura'') is itself almost exclusively reserved for ''Indra'', while in the Avesta it is applied to ''Thraetaona'' and other non-divine figures. The term "victorious" is not restricted to ''Verethragna'', but is also a property of a number of other figures, both divine and mortal, including ''Thraetaona''. Then, while in the Vedas it is ''Indra'' who discovers Soma (drink), Soma, in the Avesta, it is humans who first press Haoma and ''Thraetaona'' is attributed with being the "inventor of medicine". In the Vedas, ''Indra'' strikes with ''vajra'', but in the Avesta ''vazra'' is Mithra's weapon.
Attempts to resolve these objections led to the development of another theory, in which, in addition to the pre-historical divinity of victory, there was also a dragon-slaying hero ''Indra''. Then, while the Iranians retained the figures independently of one another, the Indians conflated the two (leaving an echo in the character of ''Trita Aptya'').
This theory too had its problems, in particular the fact that ''Indra'' was already evidently a divine figure, and not a man, in Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni, the Mittani treaties, where he appears in the company of Mitra (Vedic), Mitra and Varuna. That again raises more questions since the treaties echo the Rig Veda's invocation of all three as protectors of contract, again, not a property associated with ''Verethragna''.
However, as Benveniste and Renou demonstrated, many of the objections to the first theory could be negated if the evidence were reviewed in light of the fact that the principal feature of ''Verethragna'' was not to slay noxious creatures but to overcome obstacles (''verethra''), in particular to unblock the flow of Aban, ''apas'', the waters, the holiest of the elements.
Paul Thieme agreed with this principal feature, but clarified that while the wealth of archaic elements in the ''Bahram Yasht'' clearly point to the pre-Zoroastrian era, the interpretation of proper names is "highly conjectural", and "in no case do we get a decisive argument against their Indo-Aryan or old Indic character" Adopting "the exact linguistic and exegetic analysis" of Benveniste and Renou, Thieme concludes "Proto-Aryan ''*Indra'' has assumed the functions of a Proto-Aryan god ''*Vrtraghna''." Noting that ''Vrtrahan'' is the name of Indra only in the later Sanskrit texts (but not in the Rig Veda), Thieme adds "there is no valid justification for supposing that the Proto-Aryan adjective ''*vrtraghan'' was specifically connected with ''*Indra'' or any other particular god."
Vedic Sanskrit
Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature compiled over the period of the mid- 2nd to mid-1st millennium BCE. It was orally preser ...
. The Vedic god Indra may correspond to Verethragna of the Zoroastrian Avesta as the Vedic vr̥tragʰná-, which is predominantly an epithet of Indra, corresponds to the noun verethragna-.
The name and, to some extent, the deity was borrowed into Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
Վահագն Vahagn
Vahagn or Vahakn ( hy, Վահագն), also known as Vahagn Vishapakagh ( hy, Վահագն Վիշապաքաղ, lit=Vahagn the Dragon-reaper, label=none), is a warrior god in Armenian mythology. Scholars consider him to be either the thunder, or s ...
and Վռամ ''Vṙam'', and has cognates in Buddhist Sogdian 𐫇𐫢𐫄𐫗 ''wšɣn w(i)šaɣn'', Manichaen Parthian 𐭅𐭓𐭉𐭇𐭓𐭌 ''wryḥrm Wahrām'', Kushan Bactrian ορλαγνο ''Orlagno''. While the figure of ''Verethragna'' is highly complex, parallels have also been drawn between, Puranic
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
, Manichaean ''Adamas'', Chaldean/Babylonian Nergal, Egyptian
Egyptian describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of years of ...
Horus, Ancient Greek religion, Hellenic Ares and Heracles.
In scripture
In the ''Bahram Yasht''
''Yasht 14'', the hymn of praise to Verethragna, "though ill-preserved, contains what seem very archaic elements". There, ''Verethragna'' is described as "the most highly armed" (''Yasht'' 14.1), the "best equipped with might" (14.13), with "effervescent glory" (14.3), has "conquering superiority" (14.64), and is in constant battle with men and daemons (14.4, 14.62). ''Verethragna'' is not exclusively associated with military might and victory. So, for instance, he is connected with sexual potency and "confers virility" (''Yasht'' 14.29), has the "ability to heal" (14.3) and "renders wonderful". The ''Yasht'' begins with an enumeration of the ten forms in which the divinity appears: As an impetuous wind (14.2-5); as an armed warrior (14.27) and as an adolescent of fifteen (14.17); and in the remaining seven forms as animals: a bull with horns of gold (14.7); a white horse with ears and a muzzle of gold (14.9); a camel in heat (14.11-13); a boar (14.15); a bird of prey (''veregna'', 14.19-21); a ram (14.23); and a wild goat (14.25). Many of these incarnations are also shared with other divinities, for instance, the youth, the bull and the horse are also attributed to Tishtrya. Likewise, the bird, the camel and the wind to ''Vayu-Vata'', another member of the Zoroastrian pantheon associated with martial victory.In other texts
Together with ''Chista, Čistā'', ''Verethragna'' is a principal companion of Mithra (''Mihr Yasht'' 10.70). Several sections of the ''Bahram Yasht'' also appear in hymns dedicated to other divinities, but it is rarely possible to determine in which direction those sections were copied. The identification of Verethragna as a boar in ''Yasht'' 14 led Ilya Gershevitch to identify Dāmōiš Upamana – a boar in the Avestan hymn to Mithra – to be an alter-ego of Verethragna.; pro ; contraIn culture and tradition
In the Zoroastrian hierarchy
In the Zoroastrian hierarchy of divinities, Bahram is a helper of ''Asha Vahishta'' (Avestan, middle Persian: ''Ardvahisht''), the Amesha Spenta responsible for the luminaries. In the Zoroastrian calendar instituted during the late Achaemenid dynasty, Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE), the twentieth day of the month is dedicated to Bahram (''Siroza'' 1.20). In the later middle Persian texts ''Bahram'' is especially venerated as one of the Amesha Spentas, effectively giving him the high rank for his success in driving back Angra MainyuAs the name of a planet
In the astronomical and calendrical reforms of the Sasanian Empire, Sasanian (224-651 CE), the planet Mars was named Bahram. Zaehner attributes this to the syncretic influences of the Chaldean astral-theological system, where Babylonian Nergal is both the god of war and the name of the red planet. (see also: "Fatalistic" Zurvanism).
In the name of a class of fire
According to Boyce, the present-day expression ''atar, Atash-Behram'' as the name of the most sacred class of fires is a confusion of the adjectival "Victorious Fire" with "Fire of Bahram" The former is the way it appears in Middle Persian inscriptions such as the Kartir inscription at ''Kabah-i Zardusht'', while the latter is what is now understood by the term ''Atash-Behram''. Gnoli attributes the change to natural misunderstanding "abetted in Islamic times by a progressive decay in Zoroastrian priestly teaching"In art and iconography
The only evidence of a cult appears in the first century account of Strabo, who reports, probably on authority of Nearchus, that the Carmania (region), Carmanians worshipped a divinity of victory (''Geographika'', 15.2.14). That this was Bahramb / Verethragna is unlikely if, as per Strabo, he was their "only god." However, the account does reveal that divinities of war were known to the people who were not of the Iranian plateau, evidence for which also comes from Herodotus (4.59.62).
Under the Seleucid Empire, Seleucids (330–150 BCE) and Parthia, Arsacids (250 BCE–226 CE), that is, in the Empires influenced by Hellenic culture, ''Verethragna'' was both identified as Ares and associated with Heracles, and given the Greek name ''Artagnes''. This syncretism is well attested in statuary and iconography, most notably in that of the inscription of Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, in which all three names occur together.
That Bahram was considered the patron divinity of travelers is perhaps reflected by the life-size rock sculpture of the divinity on the main highway at Behistun. There Bahram reclines with a goblet in his hand, a club at his feet, and a lion-skin beneath him.
In the early Sasanian period Bahram is still represented as the Greek Heracles. In the relief of Ardeshir I at Naqs-e Rajab III, Bahram appears as one of the two smaller figures between Ahura Mazda and the king. There, he has a lion's skin in his left hand and brandishes a club in his right. The other small figure – who appears to be paying homage to Bahram – is the future king Bahram I.
Bahram also appears as wings, or as a bird of prey, in the crowns of the Sasanian kings. This iconography first appears in the crown of Bahram II which also bears the name of the divinity. A similar image is adopted by Peroz I, Peroz (whose name also means 'victorious') as well as by Khosrau II, Khosrau Parwez (again, Parwez meaning 'ever-victorious'). Similarly, boar and eagle heads on caps crown the heads of princes. Boar figures are widespread in Sasanian art, appearing in everything from textiles to stucco and in silver ornaments, coins, and seals. Other animal motifs have been found that recall the aspects of Bahram (see the ten forms of Bahram #In the Avesta, in the Avesta, above). The bird motif on Sasanian-era fire altars are also believed to represent Bahram.
As the name of kings
Bahram was the name of six Sasanian Empire, Sasanian kings: * Bahram I, ''r.'' 271–274. Son and successor of Shapur I * Bahram II, ''r.'' 274–293. Son and successor of Bahram I * Bahram III, ''r.'' 293. Son and successor of Bahram II * Bahram IV, ''r.'' 388–399. Son and successor of Shapur III * Bahram V, ''r.'' 420–438. Son and successor of Yazdegerd I * Bahram Chobin, ''r.'' 590 - 591. Successor of Hormizd IVIn Avestan scholarship
The interpretation of the divinity was once one of the more widely debated fields in Zoroastrian scholarship since the theories of origin reflected a radical revolution in ethical, moral and religious values.
Primarily because the Avestan adjective ''verethragnan'' ('victorious') had a corresponding Vedic term ''vrtrahan'' where it appeared "preponderantly [as] a qualification of Indra", Zoroastrians and Hindus accept that in Indo-Iranian times there existed the warrior god ''Indra'' and that Avestan ''Verethragna'' might be analogous to that divine figure. The Sanskrit cognate of Verethragna is Vritraghna, which is an epithet for Indra in Vedic literature, and he too is the destroyer of "Vritra", an Asura whose name literally means obstacle.
But western scholars oppose this identification. In the Avesta, it is the hero warrior-priest ''Fereydun'' who battles the serpent ''Zahhak, Aži Dahāka'' (which, for the virtue of 'Azi' being cognate with Sanskrit 'Ahi', snake, is – by proponents of the theory - associated with Vedic Vritra). One Western scholar claims that, in the Vedas, the epithet 'hero' (''sura'') is itself almost exclusively reserved for ''Indra'', while in the Avesta it is applied to ''Thraetaona'' and other non-divine figures. The term "victorious" is not restricted to ''Verethragna'', but is also a property of a number of other figures, both divine and mortal, including ''Thraetaona''. Then, while in the Vedas it is ''Indra'' who discovers Soma (drink), Soma, in the Avesta, it is humans who first press Haoma and ''Thraetaona'' is attributed with being the "inventor of medicine". In the Vedas, ''Indra'' strikes with ''vajra'', but in the Avesta ''vazra'' is Mithra's weapon.
Attempts to resolve these objections led to the development of another theory, in which, in addition to the pre-historical divinity of victory, there was also a dragon-slaying hero ''Indra''. Then, while the Iranians retained the figures independently of one another, the Indians conflated the two (leaving an echo in the character of ''Trita Aptya'').
This theory too had its problems, in particular the fact that ''Indra'' was already evidently a divine figure, and not a man, in Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni, the Mittani treaties, where he appears in the company of Mitra (Vedic), Mitra and Varuna. That again raises more questions since the treaties echo the Rig Veda's invocation of all three as protectors of contract, again, not a property associated with ''Verethragna''.
However, as Benveniste and Renou demonstrated, many of the objections to the first theory could be negated if the evidence were reviewed in light of the fact that the principal feature of ''Verethragna'' was not to slay noxious creatures but to overcome obstacles (''verethra''), in particular to unblock the flow of Aban, ''apas'', the waters, the holiest of the elements.
Paul Thieme agreed with this principal feature, but clarified that while the wealth of archaic elements in the ''Bahram Yasht'' clearly point to the pre-Zoroastrian era, the interpretation of proper names is "highly conjectural", and "in no case do we get a decisive argument against their Indo-Aryan or old Indic character" Adopting "the exact linguistic and exegetic analysis" of Benveniste and Renou, Thieme concludes "Proto-Aryan ''*Indra'' has assumed the functions of a Proto-Aryan god ''*Vrtraghna''." Noting that ''Vrtrahan'' is the name of Indra only in the later Sanskrit texts (but not in the Rig Veda), Thieme adds "there is no valid justification for supposing that the Proto-Aryan adjective ''*vrtraghan'' was specifically connected with ''*Indra'' or any other particular god."
See also
* Indra *VritraReferences
Bibliography
* * * * * * * * * * * {{Zoroastrian Calendar Yazatas Ancient Iranian gods Martian deities