42,418,235
[4] (32nd)
• 2001 census
48,457,102[3]
• Density
73.8/km2 (191.1/sq mi) (115th)
GDP (PPP)
2017 estimate
• Total
$366 billion[5] (50th)
• Per capita
$8,656[5] (114th)
GDP (nominal)
2017 estimate
• Total
$104 billion[5] (62nd)
• Per capita
$2,459[5] (132nd)
Gini (2015)
25.5[6]
low · 18th
HDI (2015)
0.743[7]
high · 84th
Currency
Ukrainian hryvnia
Ukrainian hryvnia (UAH)
Time zone
EET (UTC+2[8])
• Summer (DST)
EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the
right
Calling code
+380
ISO 3166 code
UA
Internet
_-_Photoplay_Editorial.jpg/440px-Heedless_Moths_(1921)_-_Photoplay_Editorial.jpg)
Internet TLD
.ua
.укр
An independence referendum was held on 1 December, after which
Ukrainian independence was finalized on 26 December.
This article contains Cyrillic text. Without proper rendering support,
you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing
conjuncts instead of Cyrillic letters.
Ukraine
Ukraine (Ukrainian: Україна, translit. Ukraina; Ukrainian
pronunciation: [ukrɑˈjinɑ]), sometimes called the Ukraine,[9]
is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe,[10] bordered by
Russia
Russia to the
east and northeast;
Belarus
Belarus to the northwest; Poland, Hungary, and
Slovakia
Slovakia to the west;
Romania
Romania and
Moldova
Moldova to the southwest; and the
Black Sea
Black Sea and
Sea of Azov
Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.
Ukraine
Ukraine is currently in a territorial dispute with
Russia
Russia over the
Crimean Peninsula, which
Russia
Russia annexed in 2014[11] but which Ukraine
and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian.
Including Crimea,
Ukraine
Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2
(233,062 sq mi),[12] making it the largest country entirely
within
Europe
.svg/400px-Europe-Ukraine_(disputed_territory).svg.png)
Europe and the 46th largest country in the world. Excluding
Crimea,
Ukraine
Ukraine has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the
32nd most populous country in the world.[13]
The territory of modern
Ukraine
Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC.
During the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic
culture, with the powerful state of
Kievan Rus'
.png/500px-Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png)
Kievan Rus' forming the basis of
Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century,
the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers,
including Lithuania, Poland, Austria-Hungary, the
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire and
Russia. A
Cossack
Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and
18th centuries, but its territory was eventually split between Poland
and the Russian Empire, and finally merged fully into the
Russian-dominated
Soviet Union
Soviet Union in the late 1940s.
During the 20th century three periods of independence occurred. The
first of these periods occurred briefly during and immediately after
the German occupation near the end of
World War I
World War I and the second
occurred, also briefly, and also during German occupation, during
World War II. However, both of these first two earlier periods would
eventually see Ukraine's territories consolidated back into a Soviet
republic within the USSR. The third period of independence began in
1991, when
Ukraine
Ukraine gained its independence from the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union in
the aftermath of its dissolution at the end of the Cold War. Ukraine
has maintained its independence as a sovereign state ever since.
Before its independence,
Ukraine
Ukraine was typically referred to in English
as "The Ukraine", but sources since then have moved to drop "the" from
the name of
Ukraine
Ukraine in all uses.[14]
Following its independence,
Ukraine
Ukraine declared itself a neutral
state.[15] Nonetheless it formed a limited military partnership with
the
Russian Federation
Russian Federation and other CIS countries and a partnership with
NATO in 1994. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO,
and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine
Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of
joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point
in the future.[16] Former President
Viktor Yanukovych
_(10992648186)_(cropped).jpg/440px-Viktor_Yanukovych_&_Yukiya_Amano_(01910428)_(10992648186)_(cropped).jpg)
Viktor Yanukovych considered the
current level of co-operation between
Ukraine
Ukraine and NATO sufficient,[17]
and was against
Ukraine
Ukraine joining NATO.[18] In 2013, after the
government of President Yanukovych had decided to suspend the
Ukraine-European Union Association Agreement
Ukraine-European Union Association Agreement and seek closer economic
ties with Russia, a several-months-long wave of demonstrations and
protests known as the
Euromaidan
Euromaidan began, which later escalated into the
2014 Ukrainian revolution
2014 Ukrainian revolution that led to the overthrow of President
Yanukovych and his cabinet and the establishment of a new government.
These events formed the background for the annexation of
Crimea
Crimea by
Russia
Russia in March 2014, and the
War in Donbass
War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1
January 2016,
Ukraine
Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep and
Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the European Union.[19]
Ukraine
Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive,
fertile farmlands and is one of the world's largest grain
exporters.[20][21] The diversified economy of
Ukraine
Ukraine includes a large
heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace and industrial
equipment.
Ukraine
Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system with
separate powers: legislative, executive and judicial branches. Its
capital and largest city is Kiev. Taking into account reserves and
paramilitary personnel,[22]
Ukraine
Ukraine maintains the second-largest
military in
Europe
Europe after that of Russia. The country is home to 42.5
million people (excluding Crimea),[13] 77.8 percent of whom are
Ukrainians
Ukrainians "by ethnicity", followed by a sizeable minority of Russians
(17.3 percent) as well as Georgians, Romanians/Moldovans, Belarusians,
Crimean Tatars,
Bulgarians
Bulgarians and Hungarians. Ukrainian is the official
language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religions in the
country are Eastern Orthodoxy and Greek Catholicism, which have
strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music. It
is a member of the
United Nations
United Nations since its founding, the Council of
Europe, OSCE, GUAM, and one of the founding states of the Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS).
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Antes people
2.3 Golden Age of Kiev
2.4 Foreign domination
2.5
Cossack
Cossack Hetmanate
2.6 19th century,
World War I
World War I and revolution
2.7 Western Ukraine, Carpathian
Ruthenia
Ruthenia and Bukovina
2.8 Inter-war Soviet Ukraine
2.9 World War II
2.10 Post-World War II
2.11 Independence
2.12 Orange Revolution
2.13
Euromaidan
Euromaidan and 2014 revolution
2.14 Civil unrest and Russian intervention
3 Historical maps of states
4 Geography
4.1 Soil
4.2 Biodiversity
4.2.1 Animals
4.2.2 Fungi
4.3 Climate
5 Politics
5.1
Constitution
Constitution of Ukraine
5.2 President, parliament and government
5.3 Courts and law enforcement
5.4 Foreign relations
5.5 Administrative divisions
5.6 Armed forces
6 Economy
6.1 Corporations
6.2 Transport
6.3 Energy
6.3.1 Fuel resources
6.3.2 Power generation
6.3.3
Renewable energy
Renewable energy use
6.4 Internet
6.5 IT
6.6 Tourism
7 Demographics
7.1 Population decline
7.2 Fertility and natalist policies
7.3 Urbanisation
7.4 Language
7.5 Religion
7.6 Famines and migration
7.7 Health
7.8 Education
7.9 Regional differences
8 Culture
8.1
Weaving
Weaving and embroidery
8.2 Literature
8.3 Architecture
8.4 Music
8.5 Cinema
8.6 Media
8.7 Sport
8.8 Cuisine
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Print sources
12.1 Reference books
12.2 Recent (since 1991)
12.3 History
12.3.1 World War II
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
Main article: Name of Ukraine
There are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name
Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it
means "borderland",[23] while more recently some linguistic studies
claim a different meaning: "homeland" or "region, country".[24]
"The Ukraine" was once the usual form in English,[25] but since the
Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, "the Ukraine" has become much
less common in the English-speaking world, and style-guides largely
recommend not using the definite article.[14][26] "The Ukraine" now
implies disregard for the country's sovereignty, according to U.S.
ambassador William Taylor.[27] The Ukrainian position is that the
usage of "'The Ukraine' is incorrect both grammatically and
politically."[9]
History[edit]
Main article: History of Ukraine
Early history[edit]
Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Pokrov,
dated to the 4th century BC
Neanderthal
Neanderthal settlement in
Ukraine
Ukraine is seen in the Molodova
archaeological sites (43,000–45,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone
dwelling.[28][29] The territory is also considered to be the likely
location for the human domestication of the horse.[30][31][32][33]
Modern human settlement in
Ukraine
Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to
32,000 BC, with evidence of the
Gravettian culture
.jpg/440px-Pointe_de_la_Gravette_MHNT_PRE.2009.0.231.2.fond_(2).jpg)
Gravettian culture in the Crimean
Mountains.[34][35] By 4,500 BC, the
Neolithic
Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian
Culture flourished in a wide area that included parts of modern
Ukraine
Ukraine including
Trypillia
Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-
Dniester
Dniester region.
During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians,
and Sarmatians.[36] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of
the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia.[37]
Beginning in the sixth century BC, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient
Rome and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia and Chersonesus,
were founded on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. These
colonies thrived well into the 6th century AD. The
Goths
.jpg/440px-Tomb_of_Theodoric_the_Great_Ravenna_(cropped).jpg)
Goths stayed
in the area but came under the sway of the
Huns
Huns from the 370s AD. In
the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern
Ukraine
Ukraine was the
centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority
of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars
took over much of the land.[citation needed]
Antes people[edit]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes were located in the territory
of what is now Ukraine. The Antes were the ancestors of Ukrainians:
White Croats, Severians, Polans, Drevlyans, Dulebes, Ulichians, and
Tiverians. Migrations from
Ukraine
Ukraine throughout the
Balkans
Balkans established
many Southern Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to
the Ilmen Lakes, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichs,
and Radimichs, the groups ancestral to the Russians. After an Avar
raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples
survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second
millennium.[citation needed]
Golden Age of Kiev[edit]
Main article: Kievan Rus'
The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of
Christianity
Christianity in Kievan Rus'.
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' was founded by the Rus' people, who came from Scandinavia
across Ladoga and settled in
Kiev
Kiev around 880 AD.
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' included
the central, western and northern part of modern Ukraine, Belarus, far
eastern strip of
Poland
Poland and the western part of present-day Russia.
According to the
Primary Chronicle
Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite initially consisted
of Varangians from Scandinavia.[citation needed]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and
most powerful state in Europe.[38] It laid the foundation for the
national identity of
Ukrainians
Ukrainians and Russians.[39] Kiev, the capital of
modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'.
Furthest extent of Kievan Rus', 1054–1132
The Varangians later assimilated into the Slavic population and became
part of the first Rus' dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.[39]
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' was
composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid
knyazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of
Kiev.[citation needed]
The Golden Age of
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the
Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity.
During the reign of his son,
Yaroslav the Wise
Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan
Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military
power.[39] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of
regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of
Vladimir II Monomakh
Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132),
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities
following Mstislav's death.[citation needed]
The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'.
Kiev
Kiev was
totally destroyed in 1240.[40] On today's Ukrainian territory, the
principalities of Halych and
Volodymyr-Volynskyi
Volodymyr-Volynskyi arose, and were
merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.[41]
Danylo Romanovych (Daniel I of Galicia or Danylo Halytskyi) son of
Roman Mstyslavych, re-united all of south-western Rus', including
Volhynia, Galicia and Rus' ancient capital of Kiev. Danylo was crowned
by the papal archbishop in Dorohychyn 1253 as the first King of all
Rus'. Under Danylo's reign, the
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia was one
of the most powerful states in east central Europe.[42]
Foreign domination[edit]
See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland,
Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and
Russian Empire
Following the Mongol invasion, much of
Ukraine
Ukraine was controlled by
Lithuania
Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and after the Union of
Lublin (1569) was included in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,
illustrated here in 1619.
In the mid-14th century, upon the death of Bolesław Jerzy II of
Mazovia, king Casimir III of
Poland
Poland initiated campaigns (1340–1366)
to take Galicia-Volhynia. Meanwhile, the heartland of Rus', including
Kiev, became the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ruled by
Gediminas
Gediminas and his successors, after the Battle on the Irpen' River.
Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union between
Poland
Poland and
Lithuania, much of what became northern
Ukraine
Ukraine was ruled by the
increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania. By 1392 the so-called Galicia–
Volhynia
Volhynia Wars
ended. Polish colonisers of depopulated lands in northern and central
Ukraine
Ukraine founded or re-founded many towns. In 1430
Podolia
Podolia was
incorporated under the Crown of the Kingdom of
Poland
Poland as Podolian
Voivodeship. In 1441, in the southern Ukraine, especially
Crimea
Crimea and
surrounding steppes,
Genghisid
Genghisid prince
Haci I Giray
Haci I Giray founded the Crimean
Khanate.[citation needed]
Bohdan Khmelnytsky,
Hetman
Hetman of Ukraine, established an independent
Ukraine
Ukraine after the uprising in 1648 against Poland.
In 1569 the
Union of Lublin
Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth, and much Ukrainian territory was transferred from
Lithuania
Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming Polish
territory de jure. Under the demographic, cultural and political
pressure of Polonisation, which began in the late 14th century, many
landed gentry of Polish
Ruthenia
Ruthenia (another name for the land of Rus)
converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish
nobility.[43] Deprived of native protectors among Rus nobility, the
commoners (peasants and townspeople) began turning for protection to
the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks, who by the 17th century became
devoutly Orthodox. The Cossacks did not shy from taking up arms
against those they perceived as enemies, including the Polish state
and its local representatives.[44]
Formed from
Golden Horde
Golden Horde territory conquered after the Mongol invasion
the
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe
until the 18th century; in 1571 it even captured and devastated
Moscow.[45] The borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions. From the
beginning of the 16th century until the end of the 17th century,
Crimean Tatar slave raiding bands[46] exported about two million
slaves from
Russia
Russia and Ukraine.[47] According to Orest Subtelny, "from
1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to
1647, seventy."[48] In 1688,
Tatars
Tatars captured a record number of 60,000
Ukrainians.[49] The Tatar raids took a heavy toll, discouraging
settlement in more southerly regions where the soil was better and the
growing season was longer. The last remnant of the
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate was
finally conquered by the
Russian Empire
Russian Empire in 1783.[50] The Taurida
Governorate was formed to govern this territory.[citation needed]
The
Cossack Hetmanate
Cossack Hetmanate is considered as a direct ancestor of today's
Ukraine.
In the mid-17th century, a
Cossack
Cossack military quasi-state, the
Zaporozhian Host, was formed by
Dnieper
Dnieper Cossacks and by Ruthenian
peasants who had fled Polish serfdom.[51]
Poland
Poland exercised little real
control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be a useful
opposing force to the Turks and Tatars,[52] and at times the two were
allies in military campaigns.[53] However the continued harsh
enserfment of peasantry by
Polish nobility
Polish nobility and especially the
suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[52]
The Cossacks sought representation in the Polish Sejm, recognition of
Orthodox traditions, and the gradual expansion of the Cossack
Registry. These were rejected by the Polish nobility, who dominated
the Sejm.[54]
Cossack
Cossack Hetmanate[edit]
The
Battle of Poltava
Battle of Poltava in 1709, as depicted by Denis Martens the
Younger, 1726
In 1648,
Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Khmelnytsky and
Petro Doroshenko
Petro Doroshenko led the largest of
the
Cossack
Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king
John II Casimir.[55] After Khmelnytsky made an entry into
Kiev
Kiev in
1648, where he was hailed liberator of the people from Polish
captivity, he founded the
Cossack Hetmanate
Cossack Hetmanate which existed until 1764
(some sources claim until 1782).
Khmelnytsky, deserted by his Tatar allies, suffered a crushing defeat
at Berestechko in 1651, and turned to the Russian tsar for help. In
1654, Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Pereyaslav, forming a military
and political alliance with
Russia
Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the
Russian tsar.
In 1657–1686 came "The Ruin", a devastating 30-year war amongst
Russia, Poland, Turks and Cossacks for control of Ukraine, which
occurred at about the same time as the Deluge of Poland. The wars
escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of deaths. Defeat
came in 1686 as the "Eternal Peace" between
Russia
Russia and
Poland
Poland divided
the Ukrainian lands between them.
In 1709,
Cossack
Cossack
Hetman
Hetman
Ivan Mazepa
Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709) defected to Sweden
against
Russia
Russia in the
Great Northern War
Great Northern War (1700–1721). Eventually
Peter recognized that to consolidate and modernize Russia's political
and economic power it was necessary to do away with the hetmanate and
Ukrainian and
Cossack
Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa died in exile
after fleeing from the
Battle of Poltava
Battle of Poltava (1709), where the Swedes and
their
Cossack
Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat.
The first page of the Bendery Constitution. This copy in Latin was
probably penned by
Hetman
Hetman Pylyp Orlyk. The original is kept in the
National Archives of Sweden.
The
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk
Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk or Pacts and Constitutions of Rights
and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host was a 1710 constitutional
document written by
Hetman
Hetman Pylyp Orlyk, a
Cossack
Cossack of Ukraine, then
within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[56] It established a
standard for the separation of powers in government between the
legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the
publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. The Constitution
limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a
democratically elected
Cossack
Cossack parliament called the General Council.
Pylyp Orlyk's
Constitution
Constitution was unique for its historic period, and was
one of the first state constitutions in Europe.[citation needed]
The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporizhska Sich abolished in
1775, as
Russia
Russia centralised control over its lands. As part of the
partitioning of
Poland
Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795, the Ukrainian lands
west of the
Dnieper
Dnieper were divided between
Russia
Russia and Austria. From 1737
to 1834, expansion into the northern
Black Sea
Black Sea littoral and the
eastern
Danube
Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign
policy.[citation needed]
Kyrylo Rozumovskyi, the last
Hetman
Hetman of left- and right-bank Ukraine
1750–1764 and the first person to declare
Ukraine
Ukraine to be a sovereign
state.
Lithuanians and
Poles
Poles controlled vast estates in Ukraine, and were a
law unto themselves.
Judicial
Judicial rulings from
Cracow
Cracow were routinely
flouted, while peasants were heavily taxed and practically tied to the
land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other using
armies of Ukrainian peasants. The
Poles
Poles and Lithuanians were Roman
Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox lesser
nobility. In 1596, they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate Church;
it dominates western
Ukraine
Ukraine to this day. Religious differentiation
left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as they were
reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.[57]
Cossacks led an uprising, called Koliivshchyna, starting in the
Ukrainian borderlands of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1768.
Ethnicity was one root cause of this revolt, which included Ukrainian
violence that killed tens of thousands of
Poles
Poles and Jews. Religious
warfare also broke out among Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict
between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along the newly reinforced
Polish-Russian border on the
Dnieper
Dnieper River in the time of Catherine II
set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had
become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into
dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also
reflected opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.[58]
After the Annexation of
Crimea
Crimea by the
Russian Empire
Russian Empire in 1783, New
Russia
Russia was settled by
Ukrainians
Ukrainians and Russians.[59] Despite promises in
the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never
received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting. However,
within the Empire,
Ukrainians
Ukrainians rose to the highest Russian state and
church offices.[a] At a later period, tsarists established a policy of
Russification, suppressing the use of the
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian language in print
and in public.[60]
19th century,
World War I
World War I and revolution[edit]
Main article: Ukrainian War of Independence
Further information:
Ukraine
Ukraine during World War I, Russian Civil War,
and
Ukraine
Ukraine after the Russian Revolution
1904 map showing administrative units of Little Russia, South Russia
and West
Russia
Russia within the
Russian Empire
Russian Empire prior to Ukrainian
independence 1917–1921.
Ukraine
Ukraine according to an old postal stamp from 1919 that was reprinted
in 2008
In the 19th century,
Ukraine
Ukraine was a rural area largely ignored by
Russia
Russia and Austria. With growing urbanization and modernization, and a
cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia
committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The
serf-turned-national-poet
Taras Shevchenko
Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and the
political theorist
Mykhailo Drahomanov
Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing
nationalist movement.[citation needed][61]
After the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774),
Catherine the Great
.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Empress_Catherine_II(a).jpg)
Catherine the Great and her
immediate successors encouraged German immigration into
Ukraine
Ukraine and
especially into Crimea, to thin the previously dominant Turk
population and encourage agriculture.[citation needed]
Beginning in the 19th century, there was migration from
Ukraine
Ukraine to
distant areas of the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census,
there were 223,000 ethnic
Ukrainians
Ukrainians in
Siberia
Siberia and 102,000 in Central
Asia.[62] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten
years after the opening of the
Trans-Siberian Railway
Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[63] Far
Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as
Green Ukraine.[64]
Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century.
Austrian Galicia, under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs,
became the centre of the nationalist movement.[citation needed]
Ukrainians
Ukrainians entered
World War I
World War I on the side of both the Central Powers,
under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. 3.5 million
Ukrainians
Ukrainians fought with the Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought
for the Austro-Hungarian Army.[65] Austro-Hungarian authorities
established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire.
This became the
Ukrainian Galician Army
Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the
Bolsheviks and
Poles
Poles in the post-
World War I
World War I period (1919–23). Those
suspected of Russophile sentiments in
Austria
Austria were treated
harshly.[66]
Ukraine
Ukraine in 1918
World War I
World War I destroyed both empires. The
Russian Revolution of 1917
Russian Revolution of 1917 led
to the founding of the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union under the Bolsheviks, and
subsequent civil war in Russia. A Ukrainian national movement for
self-determination re-emerged, with heavy Communist and Socialist
influence. Several Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the
internationally recognized
Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR, the
predecessor of modern Ukraine, was declared on 23 June 1917 proclaimed
at first as a part of the Russian Republic; after the Bolshevik
Revolution, the
Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic proclaimed its
independence on 25 January 1918), the Hetmanate, the Directorate and
the pro-
Bolshevik
.jpg/646px-Presidium_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks).jpg)
Bolshevik
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet
Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian
Empire; while the West
Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hutsul
Republic emerged briefly in the Ukrainian lands of former
Austro-Hungarian territory.[citation needed]
Act Zluky
Act Zluky (Unification Act) was an agreement signed on January 22,
1919 by the
Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian
People's Republic on the St. Sophia Square in Kiev.[citation needed]
This led to civil war, and an anarchist movement called the Black Army
or later
The Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine
The Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine developed
in
Southern Ukraine
Southern Ukraine under the command of the anarchist Nestor Makhno
during the Russian Civil War.[67] They protected the operation of
"free soviets" and libertarian communes in the Free Territory, an
attempt to form a stateless anarchist society from 1918 to 1921 during
the Ukrainian Revolution, fighting both the tsarist White Army under
Denikin and later the
Red Army
Red Army under Trotsky, before being defeated by
the latter in August 1921.
Poland
Poland defeated
Western Ukraine
Western Ukraine in the Polish-Ukrainian War, but
failed against the Bolsheviks in an offensive against Kiev. According
to the Peace of Riga, western
Ukraine
Ukraine was incorporated into Poland,
which in turn recognised the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in
March 1919. With establishment of the Soviet power,
Ukraine
Ukraine lost half
of its territory to Poland,
Belarus
Belarus and Russia, while on the left bank
of
Dniester
Dniester River was created Moldavian autonomy.[citation needed]
Ukraine
Ukraine became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics in December 1922.[68]
Western Ukraine, Carpathian
Ruthenia
Ruthenia and Bukovina[edit]
See also:
Ruthenians
Ruthenians and
Ukrainians
Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Hutsuls, living in Verkhovyna, c. 1930
The war in
Ukraine
Ukraine continued for another two years; by 1921, however,
most of
Ukraine
Ukraine had been taken over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia
and
Volhynia
Volhynia (West Ukraine) were incorporated into independent Poland.
Bukovina
Bukovina was annexed by
Romania
Romania and Carpathian
Ruthenia
Ruthenia was admitted
to the Czechoslovak Republic as an autonomy.[citation needed]
A map showing Ukraine's territory, circa 1930
A powerful underground Ukrainian nationalist movement arose in Poland
in the 1920s and 1930s because of Polish national policies, which was
led by the Ukrainian Military Organization and the Organisation of
Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The movement attracted a militant
following among students. Hostilities between Polish state authorities
and the popular movement led to a substantial number of fatalities,
and the autonomy which had been promised was never implemented. A
number of Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic Church, an active
press, and a business sector existed in Poland. Economic conditions
improved in the 1920s, but the region suffered from the Great
Depression in the 1930s.[citation needed]
Inter-war Soviet Ukraine[edit]
See also: Holodomor
Urban population of
Ukraine
Ukraine in 1925
Ukrainian
Russian
Jewish
Polish
The
Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War devastated the whole
Russian Empire
Russian Empire including
Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of
thousands homeless in the former
Russian Empire
Russian Empire territory. Soviet
Ukraine
Ukraine also faced the
Russian famine of 1921
Russian famine of 1921 (primarily affecting the
Russian Volga-Ural region).[69][70] During the 1920s,[71] under the
Ukrainisation
Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of
Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance
in the
Ukrainian culture
Ukrainian culture and language.
Ukrainisation
Ukrainisation was part of the
Soviet-wide policy of
Korenisation
Korenisation (literally indigenisation).[68] The
Bolsheviks were also committed to universal health care, education and
social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and
housing.[72]
Women's rights
Women's rights were greatly increased through new
laws.[73] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early
1930s after
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin became the de facto communist party
leader.[citation needed]
Dnieper
Dnieper Hydroelectric Station under construction circa 1930
Starting from the late 1920s with a centrally planned economy, Ukraine
was involved in Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial
output quadrupled during the 1930s.[68] The peasantry suffered from
the programme of collectivisation of agriculture which began during
and was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular
troops and secret police.[68] Those who resisted were arrested and
deported and agricultural productivity greatly declined. As members of
the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain
until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a
famine known as the
Holodomor
Holodomor or the "Great Famine".[74]
Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of
genocide, but the
Ukrainian parliament
Ukrainian parliament and the governments of other
countries have acknowledged it as such.[b]
The Communist leadership perceived famine as a means of class struggle
and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants into
collective farms.[75]
Two future leaders of the Soviet Union,
Nikita Khrushchev
.jpg)
Nikita Khrushchev (pre-war
CPSU chief in Ukraine) and
Leonid Brezhnev
.jpg/440px-Leonid_Brezhnev_Portrait_(1).jpg)
Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from
Kamianske), depicted together
Largely the same groups were responsible for the mass killing
operations during the civil war, collectivisation, and the Great
Terror. These groups were associated with Yefim Yevdokimov
(1891–1939) and operated in the Secret Operational Division within
General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Evdokimov
transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he
became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. He appears to have
continued advising
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov
Nikolai Yezhov on security
matters, and the latter relied on Evdokimov's former colleagues to
carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great
Terror in 1937–38.[76]
On 13 January 2010,
Kiev
Kiev Appellate Court posthumously found Stalin,
Kaganovich and other Soviet Communist Party functionaries guilty of
genocide against
Ukrainians
Ukrainians during the
Holodomor
Holodomor famine.[77]
World War II[edit]
See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine,
and The Holocaust in Ukraine
Following the Invasion of
Poland
Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet
troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and
Volhynia
Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For
the first time in history, the nation was united.[78][79]
In 1940, the Soviets annexed
Bessarabia
Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. The
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of
Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. But it ceded the
western part of the
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Moldavian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1925-1932).svg.png)
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to
the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. These
territorial gains of the
USSR
USSR were internationally recognized by the
Paris peace treaties of 1947.[citation needed]
Marshal Timoshenko (born in the
Budjak
Budjak region) commanded numerous
fronts throughout the war, including the Southwestern Front east of
Kiev
Kiev in 1941
German armies invaded the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating
nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against
desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the
encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City",
because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers
(or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken
captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.[80][81]
Although the majority of
Ukrainians
Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red
Army and Soviet resistance,[82] in
Western Ukraine
Western Ukraine an independent
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). Created as forces
of the Ukrainian Government in exile,[83] it fell under the influence
of the underground (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, OUN) which
had developed in interwar
Poland
Poland as a radical reaction to Polish
policies towards the Ukrainian minority. Both supported the goal of an
independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic
majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times
the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. Some UPA
divisions also carried out massacres of ethnic Poles,[84] which
brought reprisals.[85] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the
USSR
USSR until the 1950s.[86][87] At the same time, the Ukrainian
Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the
Nazis.[citation needed]
Kiev
Kiev suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied
by
Nazi Germany
.jpg/440px-Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg)
Nazi Germany from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943.
In total, the number of ethnic
Ukrainians
Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of
the
Soviet Army
Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[82] to
7 million.[88][c] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in
Ukraine
Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation
to 500,000 at its peak in 1944, with about 50% being ethnic
Ukrainians.[89] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are
unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as
100,000 fighters.[90][91]
Most of the
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat
Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual
German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators. Brutal German
rule eventually turned their supporters against the Nazi
administrators, who made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction
with Stalinist policies.[92] Instead, the Nazis preserved the
collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews,
deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a
depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[92] They
blockaded the transport of food on the
Kiev
Kiev River.[93]
The vast majority of the fighting in
World War II
World War II took place on the
Eastern Front.[94] By some estimates, 93% of all German casualties
took place there.[95] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian
population during the war are estimated at between 5 and 8
million,[96][97] including an estimated one and a half million Jews
killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[98] sometimes with the help of local
collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who
fell in battle against the Nazis,[99][100][101] 1.4 million were
ethnic Ukrainians.[99][101][c][d] Victory Day is celebrated as one of
ten Ukrainian national holidays.[102]
Post-World War II[edit]
Further information: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, History of
the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union
(1964–1982), and History of the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union (1982–1991)
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required
significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and
28,000 villages were destroyed.[103] The situation was worsened by a
famine in 1946–47, which was caused by a drought and the wartime
destruction of infrastructure. The death toll of this famine varies,
with even the lowest estimate in the tens of thousands.[104][105][106]
In 1945, the
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the
United Nations
United Nations organization,[107] part of a special agreement at the
Yalta Conference.[108]
Sergey Korolyov, a native of Zhytomyr, the head Soviet rocket engineer
and designer during the Space Race
Post-war ethnic cleansing occurred in the newly expanded Soviet Union.
As of 1 January 1953,
Ukrainians
Ukrainians were second only to
Russians
Russians among
adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[109] In
addition, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from
Ukraine
Ukraine and more than
200,000
Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.[109]
Following the death of Stalin in 1953,
Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Khrushchev became the
new leader of the USSR. Having served as First Secretary of the
Communist Party of
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR in 1938–49, Khrushchev was
intimately familiar with the republic; after taking power union-wide,
he began to emphasize "the friendship" between the Ukrainian and
Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of
Pereyaslav was widely celebrated.
Crimea
Crimea was transferred from the
Russian SFSR
Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[110]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry
and production.[111] During the 1946–1950 five-year plan, nearly 20%
of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a 5% increase
from pre-war plans. As a result, the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2%
from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same
period.[citation needed]
Soviet
Ukraine
Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial
production,[112] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry
and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major
influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership
came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev. He later ousted
Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982. Many
prominent Soviet sports players, scientists, and artists came from
Ukraine.[citation needed]
On 26 April 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear
reactor accident in history.[113] This was the only accident to
receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear
Event Scale, indicating a "major accident", until the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011.[114] At the time of the
accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories,
including 2.2 million in Ukraine.[115]
After the accident, the new city of
Slavutych
.jpg/500px-Slavutych_(02710036).jpg)
Slavutych was built outside the
exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which
was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International
Atomic Energy Agency and
World Health Organization
World Health Organization attributed 56
direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been
4,000 extra cancer deaths.[116]
Independence[edit]
Ukrainian President
Ukrainian President
Leonid Kravchuk
Leonid Kravchuk and President of the Russian
Federation
Boris Yeltsin
.jpg)
Boris Yeltsin signed the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the
Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991.
On 16 July 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State
Sovereignty of Ukraine.[117] This established the principles of the
self-determination, democracy, independence, and the priority of
Ukrainian law over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration
was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a
period of confrontation with the central Soviet authorities. In August
1991, a faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union
attempted a coup to remove
Mikhail Gorbachev
.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_850809_General_Secretary_of_the_CPSU_CC_M._Gorbachev_(close-up).jpg)
Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the
Communist party's power. After it failed, on 24 August 1991 the
Ukrainian parliament
Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence.[118]
A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on 1
December 1991. More than 90% of the electorate expressed their support
for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the
parliament,
Leonid Kravchuk
Leonid Kravchuk as the first President of Ukraine. At the
meeting in Brest,
Belarus
Belarus on 8 December, followed by the Alma Ata
meeting on 21 December, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine
formally dissolved the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS).[119]
Ukraine
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions
in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[120] However,
the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the
other former Soviet Republics. During the recession,
Ukraine
Ukraine lost 60%
of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[121][122] and suffered five-digit
inflation rates.[123] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as
well as the amounts of crime and corruption in Ukraine, Ukrainians
protested and organized strikes.[124]
The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new
currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. After 2000, the country
enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent
annually.[125][126] A new
Constitution of Ukraine
Constitution of Ukraine was adopted under
second President
Leonid Kuchma
Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned
Ukraine
Ukraine into a
semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system.
Kuchma was, however, criticised by opponents for corruption, electoral
fraud, discouraging free speech and concentrating too much power in
his office.[127]
Ukraine
Ukraine also pursued full nuclear disarmament, giving
up the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world and
dismantling or removing all strategic bombers on its territory in
exchange for various assurances (main article: Nuclear weapons and
Ukraine).[128]
Orange Revolution[edit]
Main article: Orange Revolution
Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange
Revolution
In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the
winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged,
as the
Supreme Court of Ukraine
Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[129] The results caused a
public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor
Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome. During the tumultuous months
of the revolution, candidate Yushchenko suddenly became gravely ill,
and was soon found by multiple independent physician groups to have
been poisoned by TCDD dioxin.[130][131] Yushchenko strongly suspected
Russian involvement in his poisoning.[132] All of this eventually
resulted in the peaceful Orange Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko
and
Yulia Tymoshenko
_(cropped).jpg/440px-Yulia_Tymoshenko_2015_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg)
Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting
Viktor Yanukovych
Viktor Yanukovych in
opposition.[133]
Activists of the
Orange Revolution
Orange Revolution were funded and trained in tactics
of political organisation and nonviolent resistance by Western
pollsters[clarification needed] and professional consultants[who?] who
were partly funded by Western government and non-government agencies
but received most of their funding from domestic sources.[nb 1][134]
According to The Guardian, the foreign donors included the U.S. State
Department and USAID along with the National Democratic Institute for
International Affairs, the International Republican Institute, the NGO
Freedom House
Freedom House and George Soros's Open Society Institute.[135] The
National Endowment for Democracy
National Endowment for Democracy has supported democracy-building
efforts in
Ukraine
Ukraine since 1988.[136] Writings on nonviolent struggle by
Gene Sharp contributed in forming the strategic basis of the student
campaigns.[137]
Russian authorities provided support through advisers such as Gleb
Pavlovsky, consulting on blackening the image of Yushchenko through
the state media, pressuring state-dependent voters to vote for
Yanukovych and on vote-rigging techniques such as multiple 'carousel
voting' and 'dead souls' voting.[134]
Yanukovych returned to power in 2006 as Prime Minister in the Alliance
of National Unity,[138] until snap elections in September 2007 made
Tymoshenko Prime Minister again.[139] Amid the 2008–09 Ukrainian
financial crisis the Ukrainian economy plunged by 15%.[140] Disputes
with
Russia
Russia briefly stopped all gas supplies to
Ukraine
Ukraine in 2006 and
again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in other countries.[141][142]
Viktor Yanukovych
Viktor Yanukovych was elected President in 2010 with 48% of
votes.[143]
Euromaidan
Euromaidan and 2014 revolution[edit]
Main articles:
Euromaidan
Euromaidan and 2014 Ukrainian revolution
Further information on the ongoing protests: Timeline of the
Euromaidan
Pro-EU demonstration in Kiev, 27 November 2013, during Euromaidan
The
Euromaidan
Euromaidan (Ukrainian: Євромайдан, literally
"Eurosquare") protests started in November 2013 after the president,
Viktor Yanukovych, began moving away from an association agreement
that had been in the works with the
European Union
European Union and instead chose
to establish closer ties with the Russian Federation.[144][145][146]
Some
Ukrainians
Ukrainians took to the streets to show their support for closer
ties with Europe.[147] Meanwhile, in the predominantly
Russian-speaking east, a large portion of the population opposed the
Euromaidan
Euromaidan protests, instead supporting the Yanukovych
government.[148] Over time,
Euromaidan
Euromaidan came to describe a wave of
demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine,[149] the scope of which
evolved to include calls for the resignation of President Yanukovych
and his government.[150]
Violence escalated after 16 January 2014 when the government accepted
new Anti-Protest Laws. Violent anti-government demonstrators occupied
buildings in the centre of Kiev, including the Justice Ministry
building, and riots left 98 dead with approximately fifteen thousand
injured and 100 considered missing[151][152][153][154] from 18 to 20
February.[155][156] On 21 February, President Yanukovych signed a
compromise deal with opposition leaders that promised constitutional
changes to restore certain powers to Parliament and called for early
elections to be held by December.[157] However, Members of Parliament
voted on 22 February to remove the president and set an election for
25 May to select his replacement.[158] Petro Poroshenko, running on a
pro-
European Union
European Union platform, won with over fifty percent of the vote,
therefore not requiring a run-off election.[159][160][161] Upon his
election, Poroshenko announced that his immediate priorities would be
to take action in the civil unrest in
Eastern Ukraine
Eastern Ukraine and mend ties
with the Russian Federation.[159][160][161] Poroshenko was inaugurated
as president on 7 June 2014, as previously announced by his
spokeswoman Irina Friz in a low-key ceremony without a celebration on
Kiev's
Maidan Nezalezhnosti
Maidan Nezalezhnosti square (the centre of the Euromaidan
protests[162]) for the ceremony.[163][164] In October 2014 Parliament
elections,
Petro Poroshenko
Petro Poroshenko Bloc "Solidarity" won 132 of the 423
contested seats.[165]
Civil unrest and Russian intervention[edit]
Main articles: 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, Annexation of
Crimea
Crimea by the Russian Federation, War in Donbass, and Russian military
intervention in
Ukraine
Ukraine (2014–present)
Rally in
Donetsk
Donetsk for integrity of Ukraine. 17th April 2014.
Pro-Russian
Pro-Russian protesters in Donetsk, 8 March 2014
Crimea, which is under Russian control, is shown in pink. Pink in the
Donbass
Donbass area represents areas held by the DPR/LPR separatists in
September 2014 (cities in red)
The ousting[166] of Yanukovych prompted Vladimir Putin to begin
preparations to annex
Crimea
Crimea on 23 February 2014.[167][168] Using the
Russian naval base at
Sevastopol
Sevastopol as cover, Putin directed Russian
troops and intelligence agents to disarm Ukrainian forces and take
control of Crimea.[169][170][171][172] After the troops entered
Crimea,[173] a controversial referendum was held on 16 March 2014 and
the official result was that 97 percent wished to join with
Russia.[174] On 18 March 2014,
Russia
Russia and the self-proclaimed Republic
of
Crimea
Crimea signed a treaty of accession of the Republic of
Crimea
Crimea and
Sevastopol
Sevastopol in the Russian Federation. The UN general assembly
responded by passing resolution 68/262 that the referendum was invalid
and supporting the territorial integrity of Ukraine.[175]
Separately, in the
Donetsk
Donetsk and
Luhansk
Luhansk regions, armed men declaring
themselves as local militia supported with pro-Russian protesters[176]
seized government buildings, police and special police stations in
several cities and held unrecognised status referendums.[177] The
insurgency was led by Russian emissaries Igor Girkin[178] and
Alexander Borodai[179] as well as militants from Russia, such as
Arseny Pavlov.[180]
Talks in
Geneva
Geneva between the EU, Russia,
Ukraine
Ukraine and USA yielded a
Joint Diplomatic Statement referred to as the 2014
Geneva
Geneva Pact[181] in
which the parties requested that all unlawful militias lay down their
arms and vacate seized government buildings, and also establish a
political dialogue that could lead to more autonomy for Ukraine's
regions. When
Petro Poroshenko
Petro Poroshenko won the presidential election held on
25 May 2014, he vowed to continue the military operations by the
Ukrainian government
Ukrainian government forces to end the armed insurgency.[182] More
than 9,000 people have been killed in the military campaign.[183]
OSCE
OSCE SMM monitoring the movement of heavy weaponry in eastern Ukraine,
4 March 2015
In August 2014, a bilateral commission of leading scholars from the
United States
United States and
Russia
Russia issued the Boisto Agenda indicating a 24-step
plan to resolve the crisis in Ukraine.[184] The Boisto Agenda was
organized into five imperative categories for addressing the crisis
requiring stabilization identified as: (1) Elements of an Enduring,
Verifiable Ceasefire; (2) Economic Relations; (3) Social and Cultural
Issues; (4) Crimea; and, (5) International Status of Ukraine.[184] In
late 2014,
Ukraine
Ukraine ratified the Ukraine–
European Union
European Union Association
Agreement, which Poroshenko described as Ukraine's "first but most
decisive step" towards EU membership.[185] Poroshenko also set 2020 as
the target for EU membership application.[186]
In February 2015, after a summit hosted in Belarus, Poroshenko
negotiated a ceasefire with the separatist troops. This included
conditions such as the withdrawal of heavy weaponry from the front
line and decentralisation of rebel regions by the end of 2015. It also
included conditions such as Ukrainian control of the border with
Russia
Russia in 2015 and the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Ukrainian
territory. The ceasefire began at midnight on 15 February 2015.
Participants in this ceasefire also agreed to attend regular meetings
to ensure that the agreement is respected.[187]
On 1 January 2016,
Ukraine
Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free
Trade Area with European Union,[19] which aims to modernize and
develop Ukraine's economy, governance and rule of law to EU standards
and gradually increase integration with the EU Internal market.[188]
Moreover on 11 May, 2017 the
European Union
European Union approved visa-free travel
for Ukrainian citizens over a lengthy period of waiting and
consecutive delays.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians will no longer require visas to travel
to most EU countries for tourism, family visits and business reasons.
Now that the long wait is over for Ukrainians, the only document
required of them to access the Schengen area will be a valid biometric
passport.[189]
Historical maps of states[edit]
Several states have existed on the territory of present-day Ukraine
since its foundation. Most of these territories have been located
within Eastern Europe. However, as depicted in the maps here, they
have at times extended well into
Eurasia
.svg/440px-Eurasia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Eurasia and Southeastern Europe. At
other times there has been no distinct Ukrainian state, its
territories having been annexed by its more powerful neighbours.
Historical map of Kievan Rus', last 20 years of the state
(1220–1240)
The
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia
Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia or Kingdom of Halych-Volynia
(1245–1349)
Historical map of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus' and Samogitia until
1434
Proposed
Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth
Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth or Commonwealth
of Three Nations (1658)
Ukrainian
Cossack Hetmanate
Cossack Hetmanate and territory of Zaporozhian Cossacks
under rule of
Russian Empire
Russian Empire (1751)
Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Ukraine
At 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi) and with a
coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi),
Ukraine
Ukraine is the world's
46th-largest country (after
South Sudan
South Sudan and before Madagascar). It is
the largest wholly European country and the second-largest country in
Europe
Europe (after the European part of Russia, before metropolitan
France).[e][38] It lies between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and
longitudes 22° and 41° E.
The landscape of
Ukraine
Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or
steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the
Dnieper
Dnieper (Dnipro),
Seversky Donets,
Dniester
Dniester and the
Southern Bug
Southern Bug as they flow south into
the
Black Sea
Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta
of the
Danube
Danube forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's various regions
have diverse geographic features ranging from the highlands to the
lowlands. The country's only mountains are the
Carpathian Mountains
Carpathian Mountains in
the west, of which the highest is the
Hora Hoverla
Hora Hoverla at 2,061 metres
(6,762 ft), and the
Crimean Mountains
Crimean Mountains on Crimea, in the extreme
south along the coast.[190] However
Ukraine
Ukraine also has a number of
highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and
the Near-
Dnipro
Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper); to the east
there are the south-western spurs of the
Central Russian Upland
Central Russian Upland over
which runs the border with the Russian Federation. Near the Sea of
Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow
melt from the mountains feeds the rivers, and natural changes in
altitude form sudden drops in elevation and give rise to waterfalls.
View of Carpathian National Park and
Hoverla
Hoverla at 2,061 m
(6,762 ft), the highest mountain in Ukraine
View of Carpathian National Park
Dawn on South Demerdji, Alushta, Crimea
Typical agricultural landscape of Ukraine,
Kherson
Kherson Oblast
View of "Tykhaya Bay" near
Koktebel
Koktebel on Crimea's
Black Sea
Black Sea coast
Kinburn sandbar,
Ochakiv
Ochakiv Raion,
Mykolaiv
Mykolaiv Oblast
Balkhovitin, Zuivskyi regional landscape park,
Donetsk
Donetsk Oblast
Significant natural resources in
Ukraine
Ukraine include iron ore, coal,
manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulphur, graphite, titanium,
magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber and an abundance of arable
land. Despite this, the country faces a number of major environmental
issues such as inadequate supplies of potable water; air- and
water-pollution and deforestation, as well as radiation contamination
in the north-east from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant. Recycling toxic household waste is still in its infancy
in Ukraine.[191]
Soil[edit]
From northwest to southeast the soils of
Ukraine
Ukraine may be divided into
three major aggregations:[192]
a zone of sandy podzolized soils
a central belt consisting of the black, extremely fertile Ukrainian
(chernozems)
a zone of chestnut and salinized soils
As much as two-thirds of the country's surface land consists of the
so-called black earth (chornozem), a resource that has made Ukraine
one of the most fertile regions in the world and well known as a
"breadbasket".[193] These (chornozem) soils may be divided into three
broad groups:
in the north a belt of the so-called deep chernozems, about 5 feet
(1.5 metres) thick and rich in humus
south and east of the former, a zone of prairie, or ordinary,
chernozems, which are equally rich in humus but only about 3 feet
(0.91 metres) thick
the southernmost belt, which is even thinner and has still less humus
Interspersed in various uplands and along the northern and western
perimeters of the deep chernozems are mixtures of gray forest soils
and podzolized black-earth soils, which together occupy much of
Ukraine's remaining area. All these soils are very fertile when
sufficient water is available. However, their intensive cultivation,
especially on steep slopes, has led to widespread soil erosion and
gullying.
The smallest proportion of the soil cover consists of the chestnut
soils of the southern and eastern regions. They become increasingly
salinized to the south as they approach the Black Sea.[192]
Biodiversity[edit]
Further information: Wildlife of Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is home to a diverse assemblage of animals, fungi,
microorganisms and plants.
Animals[edit]
See also:
List of fish in Ukraine
_(-mini_map).svg/440px-Ukraine_in_Europe_(relief)_(-mini_map).svg.png)
List of fish in Ukraine and List of fish of the Black Sea
The speckled ground squirrel is a native of the east Ukrainian steppes
White storks are native to south-western and north-western Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is divided[by whom?] into two main zoological areas. One of
these areas, in the west of the country, is made up of the borderlands
of Europe, where there are species typical of mixed forests, the other
is located in eastern Ukraine, where steppe-dwelling species thrive.
In the forested areas of the country it is not uncommon to find
lynxes, wolves, wild boar and martens, as well as many other similar
species; this is especially true of the Carpathian Mountains, where a
large number of predatory mammals make their home, as well as a
contingent of brown bears. Around Ukraine's lakes and rivers beavers,
otters and mink make their home, whilst in the waters carp, bream and
catfish are the most commonly found species of fish. In the central
and eastern parts of the country, rodents such as hamsters and gophers
are found in large numbers.
Fungi[edit]
More than 6,600 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species)
have been recorded from Ukraine,[194][195] but this number is far from
complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in
Ukraine, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far
higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of
all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[196] Although the
amount of available information is still very small, a first effort
has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to
Ukraine, and 2217 such species have been tentatively identified.[197]
Climate[edit]
Further information: Climate of Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine map of Köppen climate classification.
Ukraine
Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, with the exception of the
southern coast of
Crimea
Crimea which has a subtropical climate.[198] The
climate is influenced by moderately warm, humid air coming from the
Atlantic Ocean.[199] Average annual temperatures range from
5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to
11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[199]
Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the
west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[199] Western
Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around
1,200 millimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while
Crimea
Crimea and the coastal areas of the
Black Sea
Black Sea receive around 400
millimetres (15.7 in).[199]
Politics[edit]
Main articles: Politics of Ukraine, Government of Ukraine, and
Elections in Ukraine
Further information: 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine,
Annexation of
Crimea
Crimea by the Russian Federation, and War in Donbass
Petro Poroshenko
President
Volodymyr Groysman
Prime Minister
Ukraine
Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semi-parliamentary
semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and
judicial branches.
Constitution
Constitution of Ukraine[edit]
Main article:
Constitution
Constitution of Ukraine
In the modern era,
Ukraine
Ukraine has become a much more democratic
country.[200][201][202][203]
With the proclamation of its independence on 24 August 1991, and
adoption of a constitution on 28 June 1996,
Ukraine
Ukraine became a
semi-presidential republic. However, in 2004, deputies introduced
changes to the Constitution, which tipped the balance of power in
favour of a parliamentary system. From 2004 to 2010, the legitimacy of
the 2004 Constitutional amendments had official sanction, both with
the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and most major political
parties.[204] Despite this, on 30 September 2010 the Constitutional
Court ruled that the amendments were null and void, forcing a return
to the terms of the 1996
Constitution
Constitution and again making Ukraine's
political system more presidential in character.
The ruling on the 2004 Constitutional amendments became a major topic
of political discourse. Much of the concern was based on the fact that
neither the
Constitution
Constitution of 1996 nor the
Constitution
Constitution of 2004 provided
the ability to "undo the Constitution", as the decision of the
Constitutional Court would have it, even though the 2004 constitution
arguably has an exhaustive list of possible procedures for
constitutional amendments (articles 154–159). In any case, the
current
Constitution
Constitution could be modified by a vote in
Parliament.[204][205][206][clarification needed]
On 21 February 2014 an agreement between President Viktor Yanukovych
and opposition leaders saw the country return to the 2004
Constitution. The historic agreement, brokered by the European Union,
followed protests that began in late November 2013 and culminated in a
week of violent clashes in which scores of protesters were killed. In
addition to returning the country to the 2004 Constitution, the deal
provided for the formation of a coalition government, the calling of
early elections, and the release of former Prime Minister Yulia
Tymoshenko from prison.[207] A day after the agreement was reached the
Ukraine
Ukraine parliament dismissed Yanukovych and installed its speaker
Oleksandr Turchynov
.jpg/440px-Turchynov_March_2014_(cropped).jpg)
Oleksandr Turchynov as interim president[208] and
Arseniy Yatsenyuk
Arseniy Yatsenyuk as
the Prime Minister of Ukraine.[209]
President, parliament and government[edit]
Presidential administration building
Cabinet of Ministers building
The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is
the formal head of state.[210] Ukraine's legislative branch includes
the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[211] The
parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive
branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the Prime
Minister.[212] However, the President still retains the authority to
nominate the Ministers of the Foreign Affairs and of Defence for
parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the Prosecutor
General and the head of the Security Service.
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees,
and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the
Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the
constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The
Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general
jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local
councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control
over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations
are appointed by the President in accordance with the proposals of the
Prime Minister. This system virtually requires an agreement between
the President and the Prime Minister, and has in the past led to
problems, such as when President Yushchenko exploited a perceived
loophole by appointing so-called 'temporarily acting' officers,
instead of actual governors or local leaders, thus evading the need to
seek a compromise with the Prime Minister. This practice was
controversial and was subject to Constitutional Court review.
Ukraine
Ukraine has a large number of political parties, many of which have
tiny memberships and are unknown to the general public.[citation
needed] Small parties often join in multi-party coalitions (electoral
blocs) for the purpose of participating in parliamentary elections.
Courts and law enforcement[edit]
Main articles:
Judicial
Judicial system of
Ukraine
Ukraine and Law enforcement in
Ukraine
Klovsky Palace, home to the Supreme Court of Ukraine
The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom
guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well
protected from dismissal (except in the instance of gross misconduct).
Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial
period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms
their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the
system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's
independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent
and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the
Ukrainian government. The
World Justice Project
World Justice Project ranks
Ukraine
Ukraine 66 out
of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[213]
National Police of Ukraine
National Police of Ukraine was formed on 3 July 2015, as part of the
post-
Euromaidan
Euromaidan reforms.
Prosecutors in
Ukraine
Ukraine have greater powers than in most European
countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy
through Law 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not
in accordance with Council of
Europe
Europe standards".[214] The criminal
judicial system maintains an average conviction rate of over 99%,[215]
equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with[216] suspects
often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[217] On 24
March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make
recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on
court organization".[217] One day later, he stated "We can no longer
disgrace our country with such a court system."[217] The criminal
judicial system and the prison system of
Ukraine
Ukraine remain quite
punitive.
Since 1 January 2010 it has been permissible to hold court proceedings
in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak
Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of
a translator.[218][219] Previously all court proceedings had to be
held in Ukrainian.
Law enforcement agencies in
Ukraine
Ukraine are organised under the authority
of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the
national police force (Мiлiцiя) and various specialised units and
agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services.
Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for
their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of
police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to
dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to
provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were
armed.[220] Bloodshed was only avoided when Lt. Gen. Sergei Popkov
heeded his colleagues' calls to withdraw.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs is also responsible for the
maintenance of the State Security Service; Ukraine's domestic
intelligence agency, which has on occasion been accused of acting like
a secret police force serving to protect the country's political elite
from media criticism. On the other hand, however, it is widely
accepted that members of the service provided vital information about
government plans to the leaders of the
Orange Revolution
Orange Revolution to prevent
the collapse of the movement.
Foreign relations[edit]
Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership
of Ukraine, Ukraine–
European Union
European Union relations, and The
World Bank
World Bank in
Ukraine
In 1999–2001,
Ukraine
Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN
Security Council. Historically, Soviet
Ukraine
Ukraine joined the United
Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western
compromise with the Soviet Union, which had asked for seats for all 15
of its union republics.
Ukraine
Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful,
negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the
quadripartite talks on the conflict in
Moldova
Moldova and promoted a peaceful
resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine
also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations
since 1992.
Leaders of Belarus, Russia, Germany, France, and
Ukraine
Ukraine at Minsk II
summit, 2015
In January 2016,
Ukraine
Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade
Area (green) with the EU (blue), established by the Ukraine–European
Union Association Agreement.
Ukraine
Ukraine currently considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary
foreign policy objective,[221] but in practice it has always balanced
its relationship with the
European Union
European Union and the
United States
United States with
strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and
Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with
Ukraine
Ukraine went into force on 1 March
1998. The
European Union
European Union (EU) has encouraged
Ukraine
Ukraine to implement the
PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued
at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's
long-term aspirations but does not discuss association. On 31 January
1992,
Ukraine
Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation
in
Europe
Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE)), and on 10 March 1992, it became a member of the North
Atlantic Cooperation Council.
Ukraine–NATO relations
Ukraine–NATO relations are close and
the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[221] This
was removed from the government's foreign policy agenda upon election
of
Viktor Yanukovych
Viktor Yanukovych to the presidency, in 2010.[221] But after
February 2014's Yanukovych ouster and the (denied by Russia) following
Russian military intervention in
Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine renewed its drive for
NATO membership.[221]
Ukraine
Ukraine is the most active member of the
Partnership for Peace
Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine
support full eventual integration into the European Union. The
Association Agreement with the EU was expected to be signed and put
into effect by the end of 2011, but the process was suspended by 2012
because of the political developments of that time.[222] The
Association Agreement between
Ukraine
Ukraine and the
European Union
European Union was
signed in 2014.[223]
Ukraine
Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but
Russia–Ukraine relations
Russia–Ukraine relations became difficult in 2014 by the annexation
of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes.
Ukraine
Ukraine is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood
Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Administrative divisions[edit]
Main articles:
Administrative divisions of Ukraine
Administrative divisions of Ukraine and Ukrainian
historical regions
Further information: Political status of
Crimea
Crimea and
Sevastopol
Sevastopol and
2014 Crimean crisis
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as
a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified
legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Including
Sevastopol
Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of
Crimea
Crimea that were
annexed by the
Russian Federation
Russian Federation in 2014,
Ukraine
Ukraine consists of 27
regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic
(Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status –
Kiev, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and
Crimea
Crimea are
subdivided into 490 raions (districts) and city municipalities of
regional significance, or second-level administrative units. The
average area of a Ukrainian raion is 1,200 square kilometres
(460 sq mi); the average population of a raion is 52,000
people.[224]
Populated places in Ukraine
Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and
rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and
urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while
rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a
generally used term). All cities have certain degree of self-rule
depending on their significance such as national significance (as in
the case of
Kiev
Kiev and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each
oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest
of cities). City's significance depends on several factors such as its
population, socio-economic and historical importance, infrastructure
and others.
Volyn
Rivne
Zhytomyr
Kiev
Khmeln-
ytsky
Ternopil
Ivano-
Frankivsk
Zakarpattia
Chernivtsi
Vinnytsia
Cherkasy
Kirovohrad
Mykolaiv
Poltava
Chernihiv
Sumy
Kharkiv
Dnipropetrovsk
Odessa
Kherson
Zaporizhia
Donetsk
Crimea
Luhansk
Kiev
Sevastopol
Lviv
•
•
Oblasts
Cherkasy
Chernihiv
Chernivtsi
Dnipropetrovsk
Donetsk
Ivano-Frankivsk
Kharkiv
Kherson
Khmelnytskyi
Kiev
Kirovohrad
Luhansk
Lviv
Mykolaiv
Odessa
Poltava
Rivne
Sumy
Ternopil
Vinnytsia
Volyn
Zakarpattia
Zaporizhia
Zhytomyr
Autonomous republic
Cities with special status
Autonomous Republic of Crimea
City of Kiev
City of Sevastopol
Armed forces[edit]
Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine
Commander of the Ukrainian contingent in Multi-National Force –
Iraq, kisses his country's flag.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
Ukraine
Ukraine inherited a
780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the
third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[225][226] In May
1992,
Ukraine
Ukraine signed the
Lisbon Protocol
.svg/350px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Federation_(1992-1993).svg.png)
Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed
to give up all nuclear weapons to
Russia
Russia for disposal and to join the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state.
Ukraine
Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became
free of nuclear weapons.[225]
Ukraine
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional
weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe,
which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles
(army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert
the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer
military.[16]
Ukrainian frigate
Hetman
Hetman Sahaydachniy (U130)
Ukraine
Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping
operations. On Friday 3 January 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman
Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation
Atalanta and will be part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of
Somalia
Somalia for two months.[227] Ukrainian troops are deployed in Kosovo
as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[228] A Ukrainian unit was
deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the
mandated ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance and
training battalion deployed in Sierra Leone. In 2003–05, a Ukrainian
unit was deployed as part of the
Multinational force in Iraq
Multinational force in Iraq under
Polish command. The total Ukrainian armed forces deployment around the
world is 562 servicemen.[229]
Military units of other states participate in multinational military
exercises with Ukrainian forces in
Ukraine
Ukraine regularly, including U.S.
military forces.[230]
Following independence,
Ukraine
Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[15]
The country has had a limited military partnership with Russian
Federation, other CIS countries and a partnership with NATO since
1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and a
deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine
Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of
joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point
in the future.[16] Recently deposed President Viktor Yanukovych
considered the current level of co-operation between
Ukraine
Ukraine and NATO
sufficient,[17] and was against
Ukraine
Ukraine joining NATO.[18] During the
2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that
Ukraine
Ukraine would eventually
become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for the
accession.[17]
Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of Ukraine
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to
reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2014)
GNI per capita in 2016
In Soviet times, the economy of
Ukraine
Ukraine was the second largest in the
Soviet Union, being an important industrial and agricultural component
of the country's planned economy.[38] With the dissolution of the
Soviet system, the country moved from a planned economy to a market
economy. The transition was difficult for the majority of the
population which plunged into poverty.[231] Ukraine's economy
contracted severely following the years after the Soviet dissolution.
Day-to-day life for the average person living in
Ukraine
Ukraine was a
struggle. A significant number of citizens in rural
Ukraine
Ukraine survived
by growing their own food, often working two or more jobs and buying
the basic necessities through the barter economy.[232]
In 1991, the government liberalised most prices to combat widespread
product shortages, and was successful in overcoming the problem. At
the same time, the government continued to subsidise state-run
industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary emission. The loose
monetary policies of the early 1990s pushed inflation to
hyperinflationary levels. For the year 1993,
Ukraine
Ukraine holds the world
record for inflation in one calendar year.[233] Those living on fixed
incomes suffered the most.[68] Prices stabilised only after the
introduction of new currency, the hryvnia, in 1996. The country was
also slow in implementing structural reforms. Following independence,
the government formed a legal framework for privatisation. However,
widespread resistance to reforms within the government and from a
significant part of the population soon stalled the reform efforts. A
large number of state-owned enterprises were exempt from
privatisation.
The
National Bank of Ukraine
National Bank of Ukraine building
In the meantime, by 1999, the GDP had fallen to less than 40% of the
1991 level.[234] It recovered considerably in the following years, but
as at 2014 had yet to reach the historical maximum.[235] In the early
2000s, the economy showed strong export-based growth of 5 to 10%, with
industrial production growing more than 10% per year.[236]
Ukraine
Ukraine was
hit by the economic crisis of 2008 and in November 2008, the IMF
approved a stand-by loan of $16.5 billion for the country.[237]
Ukraine's 2010 GDP (PPP), as calculated by the CIA, is ranked 38th in
the world and estimated at $305.2 billion.[38] Its GDP per capita
in 2010 according to the
CIA
CIA was $6,700 (in PPP terms), ranked 107th
in the world.[38] Nominal GDP (in U.S. dollars, calculated at market
exchange rate) was $136 billion, ranked 53rd in the world.[38] By
July 2008 the average nominal salary in
Ukraine
Ukraine reached
1,930 hryvnias per month.[238] Despite remaining lower than in
neighbouring central European countries, the salary income growth in
2008 stood at 36.8%[239]
As of 2016,
Ukraine
Ukraine had average wealth per adult, at $1,254.[240]
Antonov An-225 Mriya
Antonov An-225 Mriya has the largest wingspan of any aircraft in
operational service.
Ukraine
Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and
spacecraft.
Antonov
Antonov airplanes and
KrAZ
KrAZ trucks are exported to many
countries. The majority of Ukrainian exports are marketed to the
European Union
European Union and CIS.[241] Since independence,
Ukraine
Ukraine has
maintained its own space agency, the National Space Agency of Ukraine
(NSAU).
Ukraine
Ukraine became an active participant in scientific space
exploration and remote sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007,
Ukraine
Ukraine has launched six self made satellites and 101 launch vehicles,
and continues to design spacecraft.[242][243][244]
The country imports most energy supplies, especially oil and natural
gas and to a large extent depends on
Russia
Russia as its energy supplier.
While 25% of the natural gas in
Ukraine
Ukraine comes from internal sources,
about 35% comes from
Russia
Russia and the remaining 40% from Central Asia
through transit routes that
Russia
Russia controls. At the same time, 85% of
the Russian gas is delivered to Western
Europe
Europe through Ukraine.[245]
Trends in the
Human Development Index
Human Development Index of Ukraine, 1970–2010
Ukrainian administrative divisions by monthly salary. All figures are
in the Ukrainian hryvnia.
Growing sectors of the Ukrainian economy include the information
technology (IT) market, which topped all other Central and Eastern
European countries in 2007, growing some 40 percent.[246] In
2013,
Ukraine
Ukraine ranked fourth in the world in number of certified IT
professionals after the United States,
India
India and Russia.[247]
Ukraine's 2010 GDP, as calculated by the World Bank, was around
$136 billion, 2011 GDP – around $163 billion, 2012 –
$176.6 billion, 2013 – $177.4 billion.[248] In 2014 and
2015, the Ukrainian currency was the world's worst performing
currency, having dropped 80 percent of its value since April 2014
since the
War in Donbass
War in Donbass and the annexation of
Crimea
Crimea by
Russia.[249][250]
The
World Bank
World Bank classifies
Ukraine
Ukraine as a middle-income state.[251]
Significant issues include underdeveloped infrastructure and
transportation, corruption and bureaucracy. The public will to fight
against corrupt officials and business elites culminated in a strong
wave of public demonstrations against the Victor Yanukovych's regime
in November 2013.[252] However, according to the Corruption
Perceptions Index,
Ukraine
Ukraine is still the most corrupt country in Europe
being ranked 142nd out of 175 countries on the world, in the latest
CPI report from 2014.[253] In 2007 the Ukrainian stock market recorded
the second highest growth in the world of 130 percent.[254]
According to the CIA, in 2006 the market capitalization of the
Ukrainian stock market was $111.8 billion.[38]
Ukraine
Ukraine has managed to achieve certain progress in reducing absolute
poverty, ensuring access to primary and secondary education, improving
maternal health and reducing child mortality. The poverty rate
according to the absolute criterion (share of the population whose
daily consumption is below US$5.05 (PPP)) was reduced from 11.9
percent in 2000 to 2.3 percent in 2012, and the poverty rate according
to the relative criterion (share of the population below the national
poverty line) decreased at the same time from 71.2 percent to 24.0
percent.[255]
The economy of
Ukraine
Ukraine overcame the heavy crisis caused by armed
conflict in southeast part of country. At the same time, 200%
devaluation of
Ukrainian hryvnia
Ukrainian hryvnia (national currency) in 2014–2015
made Ukrainian goods and services cheaper and more сompetitive.[256]
In 2016, for the first time since 2010, the economy grew more than 2%.
According to
World Bank
World Bank statement growth is projected at 2% in 2017
and 3.5% in 2018.
Nowdays, according to major economic classifications of countries like
GDP based on purchasing power parity per capita or Human Development
Index,
Ukraine
Ukraine is second poorest country in Europe, after
Moldova.[257][258]
Corporations[edit]
A launch of
Zenit-3SL rocket from the
Sea Launch
Sea Launch platform Ocean
Odyssey
Ukraine
Ukraine has a very large heavy-industry base and is one of the largest
refiners of metallurgical products in Eastern Europe.[259] However,
the country is also well known for its production of
high-technological goods and transport products, such as Antonov
aircraft and various private and commercial vehicles.[260] The
country's largest and most competitive firms are components of the
PFTS index, traded on the PFTS
Ukraine
Ukraine Stock Exchange.
Well-known Ukrainian brands include Naftogaz Ukrainy, AvtoZAZ,
PrivatBank, Roshen, Yuzhmash, Nemiroff, Motor Sich, Khortytsa,
Kyivstar
Kyivstar and Aerosvit.[261]
Ukraine
Ukraine is regarded as a developing economy with high potential for
future success, though such a development is thought likely only with
new all-encompassing economic and legal reforms.[262] Although Foreign
Direct Investment in
Ukraine
Ukraine remained relatively strong since
recession of the early 1990s, the country has had trouble maintaining
stable economic growth. Issues relating to current corporate
governance in
Ukraine
Ukraine were primarily linked to the large scale
monopolisation of traditional heavy industries by wealthy individuals
such as Rinat Akhmetov, the enduring failure to broaden the nation's
economic base and a lack of effective legal protection for investors
and their products.[263] Despite all this, Ukraine's economy was still
expected to grow by around 3.5% in 2010.[264]
Transport[edit]
Main articles:
Transport in Ukraine
Transport in Ukraine and Ukrainian Railways
The Kharkiv–
Dnipro
Dnipro motorway (M18)
In total, Ukrainian paved roads stretch for 164,732 kilometres
(102,360 mi).[38] Major routes, marked with the letter 'M' for
'International' (Ukrainian: Міжнародний), extend nationwide
and connect all major cities of Ukraine, and provide cross-border
routes to the country's neighbours. There are only two true motorway
standard highways in Ukraine; a 175-kilometre (109-mile) stretch of
motorway from
Kharkiv
Kharkiv to
Dnipro
Dnipro and a section of the M03 which extends
18 km (11 mi) from
Kiev
Kiev to Boryspil, where the city's
international airport is located.[citation needed]
HRCS2 multiple unit. Rail transport is heavily utilised in Ukraine
.
Rail transport in Ukraine
Rail transport in Ukraine connects all major urban areas, port
facilities and industrial centres with neighbouring countries. The
heaviest concentration of railway track is the
Donbas
Donbas region of
Ukraine. Although rail freight transport fell by 7.4% in 1995 in
comparison with 1994,
Ukraine
Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail
users.[265] The total amount of railroad track in
Ukraine
Ukraine extends for
22,473 kilometres (13,964 mi), of which 9,250 kilometres
(5,750 mi) is electrified.[38] Currently the state has a monopoly
on the provision of passenger rail transport, and all trains, other
than those with cooperation of other foreign companies on
international routes, are operated by its company 'Ukrzaliznytsia'.
Transport by air is developing quickly, with a visa-free programme for
EU nationals and citizens of a number of other Western nations,[266]
the nation's aviation sector is handling a significantly increased
number of travellers. The
Euro 2012
Euro 2012 football tournament, held in
Poland
Poland and
Ukraine
Ukraine as joint hosts, prompted the government to invest
heavily in transport infrastructure, and in particular airports.[267]
The
Donetsk
Donetsk airport, completed for Euro 2012, was destroyed by the end
of 2014 because of the ongoing war between the government and the
separatist movement.[268]
Kiev
Kiev
Boryspil
Boryspil is the county's largest international airport; it has
three main passenger terminals and is the base for the country's flag
carrier,
Ukraine
Ukraine International Airlines. Other large airports in the
country include those in Kharkiv,
Lviv
Lviv and
Donetsk
Donetsk (now destroyed),
whilst those in Dnipropetrovsk and
Odessa
Odessa have plans for terminal
upgrades in the near future. In addition to its flag carrier, Ukraine
has a number of airlines including Windrose Airlines, Dniproavia, Azur
Air Ukraine, and AtlasGlobal Ukraine.
Antonov
Antonov Airlines, a subsidiary
of the
Antonov
Antonov Aerospace Design Bureau is the only operator of the
world's largest fixed wing aircraft, the An-225.
International maritime travel is mainly provided through the Port of
Odessa, from where ferries sail regularly to Istanbul,
Varna
Varna and
Haifa. The largest ferry company presently operating these routes is
Ukrferry.[269]
Energy[edit]
Main article: Energy in Ukraine
In 2014,
Ukraine
Ukraine was ranked number 19 on the Emerging Market Energy
Security Growth Prosperity Index, published by the think tank Bisignis
Institute, which ranks emerging market countries using government
corruption, GDP growth and oil reserve information.[270]
Fuel resources[edit]
Ukraine
Ukraine produces and processes its own natural gas and petroleum.
However, the majority of these commodities are imported. Eighty
percent of Ukrainian natural gas supplies are imported, mainly from
Russia.[271]
Natural gas
Natural gas is heavily utilised not only in energy production but also
by steel and chemical industries of the country, as well as by the
district heating sector. In 2012, Shell started exploration drilling
for shale gas in Ukraine—a project aimed at the nation's total gas
supply independence.[citation needed]
Following the armed conflict in the Donbass,
Ukraine
Ukraine was cut off from
half of coal and all of its anthracite extraction, dropping Ukrainian
coal production by 22 percent in 2014.
Russia
Russia was Ukraine’s largest
coal supplier, and in 2014
Russia
Russia blocked its coal supplies, forcing
22 Ukrainian power plants to shut down temporarily.
After that,
Ukraine
Ukraine started to lower imports from Russia.
In 2017,
Russia
Russia accounted for 55.7 percent of total coal supplies,
United States
United States at 25 percent, the second-leading supplier.
In 2014, almost 100 percent of Ukraine’s natural gas supply came
from Russia. From 2016, it all comes from the EU.
In 2014, all of Ukraine’s nuclear fuel came from Russia. By 2016,
Russia’s share was down to 55 percent, Westinghouse supplying
nuclear fuel for six of Ukraine’s
VVER-1000
VVER-1000 nuclear reactors.[272]
Power generation[edit]
Zaporizhia
Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant, the largest nuclear power plant in
Europe
Ukraine
Ukraine has been a net energy exporting country, for example in 2011,
3.3% of electricity produced were exported,[273] but also one of
Europe's largest energy consumers.[274] As of 2011[update], 47.6% of
total electricity generation was from nuclear power[273] The largest
nuclear power plant in Europe, the
Zaporizhia
Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant, is
located in Ukraine. Most of the nuclear fuel has been coming from
Russia.[when?] In 2008
Westinghouse Electric Company
Westinghouse Electric Company won a five-year
contract selling nuclear fuel to three Ukrainian reactors starting in
2011.[275] Following
Euromaidan
Euromaidan then President Viktor Yanukovych
introduced a ban on
Rosatom
Rosatom nuclear fuel shipments to
Europe
Europe via
Ukraine, which was in effect from 28 January until 6 March 2014.[276]
After the Russian annexation of
Crimea
Crimea in April 2014, the National
Nuclear Energy Generating Company of
Ukraine
Ukraine
Energoatom
Energoatom and
Westinghouse extended the contract for fuel deliveries through
2020.[277]
Coal
Coal and gas-fired thermal power stations and hydroelectricity are the
second and third largest kinds of power generation in the
country.[citation needed]
Renewable energy
Renewable energy use[edit]
Perovo Solar Park
The share of renewables within the total energy mix is still very
small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable
energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and as of 2012[update]
stands at 397 MW.[278] In 2011 several large solar power stations
were opened in Ukraine, among them Europe's largest solar park in
Perovo, (Crimea).[279]
Ukrainian State
Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency
and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind
and solar power plants in
Ukraine
Ukraine could increase by another
600 MW in 2012.[280] According to Macquarie Research, by 2016
Ukraine
Ukraine will construct and commission new solar power stations with a
total capacity of 1.8 GW, almost equivalent to the capacity of two
nuclear reactors.[281]
The Economic Bank for Reconstruction and Development estimates that
Ukraine
Ukraine has great renewable energy potential: the technical potential
for wind energy is estimated at 40 TWh/year, small hydropower stations
at 8.3 TWh/year, biomass at 120 TWh/year, and solar energy at 50
TWh/year.[282] In 2011, Ukraine's Energy Ministry predicted that the
installed capacity of generation from alternative and renewable energy
sources would increase to 9% (about 6 GW) of the total electricity
production in the country.[283]
Internet[edit]
Main articles:
Internet in Ukraine
Internet in Ukraine and Telecommunications in Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine has a large and steadily growing
Internet
Internet sector, mostly
uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–08. As of June, 2014,
there were 18.2 million desktop
Internet
Internet users, which is 56% of the
adult population. The core of the audience is the 25 to 34-year-old
age bracket, representing 29% of the population.[284]
Ukraine
Ukraine ranks
8th among the world's top ten countries with the fastest Internet
access speed.[285]
IT[edit]
According to A.T. Kearney Global Services Location Index,[286] Ukraine
ranks 24th among the best outsourcing locations, and is among the top
20 offshore services locations in EMEA, according to Gartner.[287] In
the first six months of 2017, the volume of export of computer and
information services reached $1.256 billion, which is an 18.3%
increase compared to the same period in 2016.[288] The IT industry
ranks third in the export structure of
Ukraine
Ukraine after agro-industry and
metallurgy.
Ukraine’s IT sector employs close to 100,000 workers, including
50,000 software developers. This number is expected to surpass the
200,000 mark by 2020.[289] There are over 1,000 IT companies in
Ukraine.[290] In 2017, 13 of them made it to the list of 100 best
outsourcing service providers in the world.[291] More than 100
multinational tech companies have R&D labs in Ukraine.[292]
Ukraine
Ukraine ranks first worldwide in the number of C++ and Unity3D
developers, and second in the number of JavaScript, Scala, and Magento
engineers.[293] 78% of Ukrainian tech workers report having an
intermediate or higher level of English proficiency.[294]
Tourism[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Ukraine
In 2007
Ukraine
Ukraine occupied 8th place in
Europe
Europe by the number of tourists
visiting, according to the
World Tourism Organisation
World Tourism Organisation rankings.[295]
Ukraine
Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for
skiing, hiking and fishing: the
Black Sea
Black Sea coastline as a popular
summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosystems; churches,
castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks; various
outdoor activity points. Kiev, Lviv,
Odessa
Odessa and Kamyanets-Podilskyi
are Ukraine's principal tourist centres each offering many historical
landmarks as well as formidable hospitality infrastructure. Tourism
used to be the mainstay of Crimea's economy but there has been a major
fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.[296]
The
Seven Wonders of Ukraine
Seven Wonders of Ukraine and
Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine
Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are
the selection of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by
the general public through an Internet-based vote.
Demographics[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Ukraine
Composition of
Ukraine
Ukraine by nationality
Ukrainians
77.8%
Russians
17.3%
Belarusians
0.6%
Moldovans
0.5%
Crimean Tatars
0.5%
Bulgarians
0.4%
Hungarians
0.3%
Romanians
0.3%
Poles
0.3%
Other
1.7%
Source:
Ethnic
Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census
Main ethnic groups of Ukrainian raions (2001)
According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001,
Ukrainians
Ukrainians make up 77.8% of
the population. Other significant groups have identified themselves as
belonging to the nationality of
Russians
Russians (17.3%),
Belarusians
Belarusians (0.6%),
Moldovans
-en.png/440px-Moldova_(1483)-en.png)
Moldovans (0.5%),
Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars (0.5%),
Bulgarians
Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians
(0.3%),
Romanians
Romanians (0.3%),
Poles
Poles (0.3%),
Jews
Jews (0.3%),
Armenians
Armenians (0.2%),
Greeks
Greeks (0.2%) and
Tatars
Tatars (0.2%).[3] The industrial regions in the east
and southeast are the most heavily populated, and about 67.2% of the
population lives in urban areas.[297]
Ukraine
Ukraine has one of the most equal income distribution as measured by
Gini index
Gini index and Palma ratio.[298]
Population decline[edit]
Ukraine's population (excluding Crimea) in 2017 was estimated at
42,418,235.[299] The country's population has been declining since the
1990s because of a high emigration rate, coupled with high death rates
and low birth rates. The population has been shrinking by over 150,000
annually since 1993. The birth rate has recovered in recent years from
a low level around 2000, and is now comparable to the European
average. It would need to increase by another 50% or so to stabilize
the population and offset the high mortality rate.[citation needed]
In 2007, the country's rate of population decline was the fourth
highest in the world.[300]
Life expectancy is falling, and
Ukraine
Ukraine suffers a high mortality rate
from environmental pollution, poor diets, widespread smoking,
extensive alcoholism and deteriorating medical care.[301][302]
During the years 2008 to 2010, more than 1.5 million children were
born in Ukraine, compared to fewer than 1.2 million during
1999–2001. In 2008
Ukraine
Ukraine posted record-breaking birth rates since
its 1991 independence. Infant mortality rates have also dropped from
10.4 deaths to 8.3 per 1,000 children under one year of age. This is
lower than in 153 countries of the world.[303]
Fertility and natalist policies[edit]
Population of
Ukraine
Ukraine (in thousands) from 1950 to 2012[304][305]
The current birth rate in Ukraine, as of 2010[update], is 10.8
births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 15.2 deaths/1,000
population (see
Ukraine
Ukraine demographic tables).
The phenomenon of lowest-low fertility, defined as total fertility
below 1.3, is emerging throughout
Europe
Europe and is attributed by many to
postponement of the initiation of childbearing. Ukraine, where total
fertility (a very low 1.1 in 2001), was one of the world's lowest,
shows that there is more than one pathway to lowest-low fertility.
Although
Ukraine
Ukraine has undergone immense political and economic
transformations during 1991–2004, it has maintained a young age at
first birth and nearly universal childbearing. Analysis of official
national statistics and the Ukrainian Reproductive Health Survey show
that fertility declined to very low levels without a transition to a
later pattern of childbearing. Findings from focus group interviews
suggest explanations of the early fertility pattern. These findings
include the persistence of traditional norms for childbearing and the
roles of men and women, concerns about medical complications and
infertility at a later age, and the link between early fertility and
early marriage.[306]
To help mitigate the declining population, the government continues to
increase child support payments. Thus it provides one-time payments of
12,250 hryvnias for the first child, 25,000 Hryvnias for the second
and 50,000 Hryvnias for the third and fourth, along with monthly
payments of 154 hryvnias per child.[239][307] The demographic trend is
showing signs of improvement, as the birth rate has been steadily
growing since 2001.[308] Net population growth over the first nine
months of 2007 was registered in five provinces of the country (out of
24), and population shrinkage was showing signs of stabilising
nationwide. In 2007 the highest birth rates were in the western
oblasts.[309] In 2008,
Ukraine
Ukraine emerged from lowest-low fertility, and
the upward trend has continued since, except for a slight dip in 2010
because of the economic crisis of 2009 (see demographic tables).
Urbanisation[edit]
Main article: List of cities in Ukraine
In total,
Ukraine
Ukraine has 457 cities, 176 of them are labelled
oblast-class, 279 smaller raion-class cities, and two special legal
status cities. These are followed by 886 urban-type settlements and
28,552 villages.[224]
v
t
e
Largest cities or towns in Ukraine
Geonames.org
Rank
Name
Region
Pop.
Rank
Name
Region
Pop.
Kiev
Kharkiv
1
Kiev
Kiev
Kiev (city)
2,900,920
11
Luhansk
Luhansk
431,109
Odessa
Dnipro
2
Kharkiv
Kharkiv
1,439,036
12
Vinnytsia
Vinnytsia
370,800
3
Odessa
Odessa
1,016,515
13
Makiivka
Donetsk
358,156
4
Dnipro
Dnipropetrovsk
979,046
14
Sevastopol
Sevastopol
Sevastopol (city)
340,297
5
Donetsk
Donetsk
929,063
15
Simferopol
Crimea
336,330
6
Zaporizhia
Zaporizhia
757,650
16
Kherson
Kherson
302,526
7
Lviv
Lviv
727 968
17
Poltava
Poltava
298,652
8
Kryvyi Rih
Dnipropetrovsk
654,900
18
Chernihiv
Chernihiv
296,836
9
Mykolaiv
Mykolaiv
498,518
19
Cherkasy
Cherkasy
286,037
10
Mariupol
Donetsk
486,856
20
Horlivka
Donetsk
279,637
Language[edit]
Main articles: Ukrainian language,
Russian language
Russian language in Ukraine,
Languages of Ukraine, and Name of Ukraine
Percentage of ethnic
Ukrainians
Ukrainians by subdivision according to the 2001
census (by oblast)
Percentage of native Russian speakers by subdivision according to the
2001 census (by oblast)[f]
According to the constitution, the state language of
Ukraine
Ukraine is
Ukrainian.[310] Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and
southern Ukraine.[310] According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent
of the population declared Ukrainian as their native language and
29.6 percent declared Russian.[311] Most native Ukrainian
speakers know Russian as a second language.[310] Russian was the de
facto official language of the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union but both Russian and
Ukrainian were official languages in the Soviet Union[312] and in the
schools of the
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR learning Ukrainian was mandatory.[310]
Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitles any
local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be
declared official within that area.[313] Russian was within weeks
declared as a regional language in several southern and eastern
oblasts (provinces) and cities.[314] Russian can now be used in these
cities'/oblasts' administrative office work and documents.[315][316]
On 23 February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the
Ukrainian Parliament
Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages,
making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the
repeal was not signed by acting President Turchynov and current
President Poroshenko.[317][318][319]
Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine.[310] In
western Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities
(such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian and Russian are both
equally used in cities, with Russian being more common in Kiev,[f]
while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities. In
eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily used in cities, and
Ukrainian is used in rural areas. These details result in a
significant difference across different survey results, as even a
small restating of a question switches responses of a significant
group of people.[f]
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers
declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the
usage of the
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian language in public life had decreased
significantly.[320] Following independence, the government of Ukraine
began restoring the image and usage of
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian language through a
policy of Ukrainisation.[321] Today, most foreign films and TV
programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in
Ukrainian.
According to the
Constitution
Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea,
Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However, the
republic's constitution specifically recognises Russian as the
language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage
'in all spheres of public life'. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language
(the language of 12 percent of population of Crimea)[322] is
guaranteed a special state protection as well as the 'languages of
other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming
majority of the Crimean population (77 percent), with Crimean
Tatar speakers 11.4 percent and Ukrainian speakers comprising
just 10.1 percent.[323] But in everyday life the majority of
Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars and
Ukrainians
Ukrainians in
Crimea
Crimea use Russian.[324]
Religion[edit]
Main article: Religion in Ukraine
Religion in Ukraine
Religion in Ukraine as of 2016 (Razumkov Center)[325]
Orthodox
65.4%
Do not believe in one of the listed religions
16.3%
Simply Christianity
7.1%
Greek Catholicism
6.5%
Protestantism
1.9%
Islam
1.1%
Roman Catholicism
1.0%
Judaism
0.2%
Hinduism
0.2%
Other religions
0.2%
The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, a
UNESCO
UNESCO World Heritage Site[326]
is one of the main
Christian
Christian cathedrals in Ukraine
St. Nicholas Roman Catholic Cathedral in Kiev
A 2016 survey conducted by the
Razumkov Centre
Razumkov Centre found that 70% of
Ukrainians
Ukrainians declared themselves believers in any religion, while 10.1%
were uncertain whether they believed or not, 7.2% were uninterested in
beliefs, 6.3% were unbelievers, 2.7% were atheists, and a further 3.9%
found it difficult to answer the question.[327] The level of
religiosity in
Ukraine
Ukraine is greatest in
Western Ukraine
Western Ukraine (91%), and
lowest in
Eastern Ukraine
Eastern Ukraine (56%) and the
Donbass
Donbass (57%).[327]
Changes over time and region in the proportions of people in Ukraine
identifying themselves as believers, etc.[327]
Whether you attend church or not, who do you think you are?
Ukraine
2016 survey split by region
2000
2010
2013
2014
2016
West
Centre
South
East
Donbass
Believers
57.8%
71.4%
67.0%
76.0%
70.4%
91.0%
73.5%
65.7%
55.6%
57.2%
Those who hesitate between belief and disbelief
22.5%
11.5%
14.7%
7.9%
10.1%
4.7%
7.3%
8.3%
14.2%
19.5%
Not a believer
11.9%
7.9%
5.5%
4.7%
6.3%
0.9%
4.8%
7.4%
13.4%
7.2%
Atheist beliefs
3.2%
1.4%
2.0%
2.5%
2.7%
0.2%
2.6%
3.2%
3.5%
5.0%
Do not care
2.6%
4.4%
5.1%
4.9%
7.2%
1.2%
8.0%
13.0%
7.3%
9.4%
Difficult to answer
2.0%
3.3%
5.7%
3.9%
3.9%
1.9%
3.8%
2.3%
5.9%
1.6%
Of the Ukrainian population, 81.9% were Christians, comprising a 65.4%
who declared to be Orthodox, 7.1% simply Christians, 6.5% Greek Rite
Catholics, and 1.9% Protestants. A further 1.1% were Muslims and 1.0%
Latin Rite
Latin Rite Catholics.
Judaism
Judaism and
Hinduism
Hinduism were the religions of 0.2%
of the population each. A further 16.3% of the population did not
identify in one of those listed hitherto.[325] According to the
surveys conducted by Razumkov in the 2000s and early 2010s, such
numbers have remained relatively constant throughout the last
decade.[325]
A 2006 survey of the same Razumkov Centre, found that: 62.5% of all
respondents were not religious, not believers or not affiliated to any
religious body, 33.6% were Christians (26.8% Orthodox, 5.9% Catholics,
and 0.9% Protestants), 0.1% were Jewish, and 3.8% were members of
other religions.[328]
Among those
Ukrainians
Ukrainians who declared to believe in Orthodoxy, 38.1%
declared to be members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kievan
Patriarchate (a body that is not canonically recognized by the Eastern
Orthodox Church), while 23.0% declared to be members of the Ukrainian
Orthodox Church of the Moscovian Patriarchate (which is an autonomous
Orthodox church under the Russian Orthodox Church). A further 2.7%
were members of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which,
like the Kievan Patriarchate, is not recognized by the Eastern
Orthodox Church.[329] Among the remaining Orthodox Ukrainians, 32.3%
declared to be "simply Orthodox", without affiliation to any
patriarchate, while a further 3.1% declared that they "did not know"
which patriarchate or Orthodox church they belonged to.[330]
The second largest
Christian
Christian group in Ukraine, Catholicism, is
predominantly represented by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, an
Eastern
Catholic Church
Catholic Church in communion with the
Holy See
Holy See of the Roman
Catholic Church. It recognizes the primacy of the
Pope
Pope as head of the
Church while still maintaining a similar liturgical and spiritual
tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy.[331] Additionally, there are a small
number of
Latin Rite
Latin Rite Catholic communities (1.0%).[325] The church
consists mainly of ethnic
Poles
Poles and Hungarians, who live predominantly
in the western regions of the country.[citation needed] Protestants in
Ukraine
Ukraine make up 1.9% of the population as of 2016.[325] A further 7.1%
of the population declares to be simply Christian.[325]
Famines and migration[edit]
The famines of the 1930s, followed by the devastation of World War II,
created a demographic disaster. Life expectancy at birth fell to a
level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and
plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period
1941–44.[332] According to The Oxford companion to World War II,
"Over 7 million inhabitants of Ukraine, more than one-sixth of the
pre-war population, were killed during the Second World War."[333]
Significant migration took place in the first years of Ukrainian
independence. More than one million people moved into
Ukraine
Ukraine in
1991–92, mostly from the other former Soviet republics. In total,
between 1991 and 2004, 2.2 million immigrated to
Ukraine
Ukraine (among
them, 2 million came from the other former
Soviet Union
Soviet Union states),
and 2.5 million emigrated from
Ukraine
Ukraine (among them,
1.9 million moved to other former
Soviet Union
Soviet Union republics).[334]
Currently, immigrants constitute an estimated 14.7% of the total
population, or 6.9 million people; this is the fourth largest
figure in the world.[335] In 2006, there were an estimated 1.2 million
Canadians of Ukrainian ancestry,[336] giving
Canada
Canada the world's
third-largest Ukrainian population behind
Ukraine
Ukraine itself and Russia.
There are also large Ukrainian immigrant communities in the United
States, Poland, Australia,
Brazil
Brazil and Argentina.
Health[edit]
Main article: Health in Ukraine
The municipal children's hospital in Kremenchuk,
Poltava
Poltava Oblast
The
Ukrainian Red Cross Society
Ukrainian Red Cross Society was established in April 1918 in Kiev
as an independent humanitarian society of the Ukrainian People's
Republic. Its immediate tasks were to help refugees and prisoners of
war, care for handicapped people and orphaned children, fight famine
and epidemics, support and organize sick quarters, hospitals and
public canteens. At present, society involves more than 6.3 million
supporters and activists. Its Visiting Nurses Service has 3,200
qualified nurses. The organization takes part in more than 40
humanitarian programmes all over Ukraine, which are mostly funded by
public donation and corporate partnerships. By its own estimates, the
Society annually provides services to more than 105,000 lonely,
elderly people, about 23,000 people disabled during the Second World
War and handicapped workers, more than 25,000 war veterans, and more
than 8,000 adults handicapped since childhood. Assistance for orphaned
and disabled children is also rendered.
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available
to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not
compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of
private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[337] The public sector
employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private
medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as
they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a
regular basis.
All of the country's medical service providers and hospitals are
subordinate to the Ministry of Health, which provides oversight and
scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for
the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this,
standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.[338]
Hospitals in
Ukraine
Ukraine are organised along the same lines as most
European nations, according to the regional administrative structure;
as a result most towns have their own hospital (Міська
Лікарня) and many also have district hospitals (Районна
Лікарня). Larger and more specialised medical complexes tend
only to be found in major cities, with some even more specialised
units located only in the capital, Kiev. However, all oblasts have
their own network of general hospitals which are able to deal with
almost all medical problems and are typically equipped with major
trauma centres; such hospitals are called 'regional hospitals'
(Обласна Лікарня).
Ukraine
Ukraine currently faces a number of major public health issues and is
considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death
rate and low birth rate (the current Ukrainian birth rate is 11
births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 16.3 deaths/1,000
population). A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high
mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as
alcohol poisoning and smoking.[302] In 2008, the country's population
was one of the fastest declining in the world at −5%
growth.[300][339] The UN warned that Ukraine's population could fall
by as much as 10 million by 2050 if trends did not improve.[340] In
addition, obesity, systemic high blood pressure and the HIV endemic
are all major challenges facing the Ukrainian healthcare system.
As of March 2009 the
Ukrainian government
Ukrainian government is reforming the health care
system, by the creation of a national network of family doctors and
improvements in the medical emergency services.[341] In November 2009,
former Prime Minister
Yulia Tymoshenko
Yulia Tymoshenko proposed introducing a public
healthcare system based on health insurance in the spring of
2010.[342]
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right
after the appointment of
Ulana Suprun
Ulana Suprun as a head of the Ministry of
Healthcare of Ukraine.[343] Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun
first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.[344] Funds
must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care
for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency
medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state.
Emergency Medicine Reform is also an important part of the healthcare
reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which
cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free
or low price medicine.[345]
Education[edit]
Main articles:
Education in Ukraine
.png/440px-Ministry_of_Education_and_Science_of_Ukraine_(en_c).png)
Education in Ukraine and List of universities in
Ukraine
The University of
Kiev
Kiev is one of Ukraine's most important educational
institutions.
Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans
Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans building by Josef
Hlávka, 1882, now Chernivtsi University
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is
granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is
compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming
majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational
establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[346] There is also
a small number of accredited private secondary and higher education
institutions.
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education
for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an
estimated 99.4%.[38] Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has
been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four
years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary)
takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three
years.[347] In the 12th grade, students take Government tests, which
are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later
used for university admissions.
The first higher education institutions (HEIs) emerged in Ukraine
during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The first Ukrainian
higher education institution was the Ostrozka School, or Ostrozkiy
Greek-Slavic-Latin Collegium, similar to Western European higher
education institutions of the time. Established in 1576 in the town of
Ostrog, the Collegium was the first higher education institution in
the Eastern Slavic territories. The oldest university was the Kyiv
Mohyla Academy, first established in 1632 and in 1694 officially
recognised by the government of Imperial
Russia
Russia as a higher education
institution. Among the oldest is also the
Lviv
Lviv University, founded in
1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th
century, beginning with universities in
Kharkiv
Kharkiv (1805),
Kiev
Kiev (1834),
Odessa
Odessa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional
higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and
Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of
Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a
Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in
Kiev
Kiev (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid
growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 a number of higher
education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000
students.[348] Most HEIs established after 1990 are those owned by
private organisations.
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational
establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under
national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of
education.[349] The organisation of higher education in
Ukraine
Ukraine is
built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's
higher developed countries, as is defined by
UNESCO
UNESCO and the UN.[350]
Ukraine
Ukraine has more than 800 higher education institutions and in 2010
the number of graduates reached 654,700 people.[351]
Ukraine
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates
in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population. Higher education
is either state funded or private. Students that study at state
expense receive a standard scholarship if their average marks at the
end-of-term exams and differentiated test suffice; this rule may be
different in some universities. For highest grades, the scholarship is
increased by 25%. For most students the government subsidy is not
sufficient to cover their basic living expenses. Most universities
provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. Also, it is
common for libraries to supply required books for all registered
students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's
degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in
accordance with the Bologna process. Historically, Specialist degree
(usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree
awarded by universities in the Soviet times.
The
Law of Ukraine
Law of Ukraine On Higher Education came into force on 6 September
2014. It was approved in
Ukrainian Parliament
Ukrainian Parliament on 1 July 2014. The main
changes in the system of higher education:[352] a separate collegiate
body to monitor the quality of education was established (Ukrainian:
Національне агентство із
забезпечення якості вищої освіти); each
higher education institution has the right to implement its own
educational and research programs; role of the student government was
increased; higher education institution has the right freely
administer own revenues; 5 following types of higher education
qualifications were established: Junior Bachelor, Bachelor, Master,
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and Doctor of Science; load on lecturers
and students was reduced; academic mobility for faculty and students
etc.
Regional differences[edit]
See also:
Demographics of Ukraine
Demographics of Ukraine § Regional differences,
Central Ukraine, Eastern Ukraine, Southern Ukraine, and Western
Ukraine
Results of the 2012 parliamentary election Yanukovych's Party of
Regions in blue. Batkivshchyna in purple.
Ukrainian is the dominant language in
Western Ukraine
Western Ukraine and in Central
Ukraine, while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of
Eastern Ukraine
Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine. In the
Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR schools,
learning Russian was mandatory; currently in modern Ukraine, schools
with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian
and in the other minority languages.[310][353][354][355]
On the Russian language, on
Soviet Union
Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism,
opinion in
Eastern Ukraine
Eastern Ukraine and
Southern Ukraine
Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact
opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central
Ukraine
Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.[354][356][357][358]
Similar historical cleavages also remain evident at the level of
individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important
political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between
Lviv, identifying more with
Ukrainian nationalism
Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian
Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated
and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and southern
Ukraine, as well as Kiev, such divisions were less important and there
was less antipathy toward people from other regions (a poll by the
Research & Branding Group held March 2010 showed that the attitude
of the citizens of
Donetsk
Donetsk to the citizens of
Lviv
Lviv was 79% positive
and that the attitude of the citizens of
Lviv
Lviv to the citizens of
Donetsk
Donetsk was 88% positive).[359] However, all were united by an
overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties,
showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and
politics than by demographic differences.[359][360] Surveys of
regional identities in
Ukraine
Ukraine have shown that the feeling of
belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the
Donbas
Donbas (about
40%) and the
Crimea
Crimea (about 30%).[361]
During elections voters of Western and Central Ukrainian oblasts
(provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine,
Batkivshchyna)[362][363] and presidential candidates (Viktor
Yuschenko, Yulia Tymoshenko) with a pro-Western and state reform
platform, while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for
parties (CPU, Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor
Yanukovych) with a pro-Russian and status quo
platform.[364][365][366][367] However, this geographical division is
decreasing.[368][369][370]
Culture[edit]
Main article: Ukrainian culture
A collection of traditional Ukrainian
Easter
.jpg)
Easter eggs – pysanky. The
design motifs on pysanky date back to early Slavic cultures.
Rushnyk, Ukrainian embroidery
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Orthodox Christianity, the
dominant religion in the country.[329] Gender roles also tend to be
more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up
children, than in the West.[371][citation needed] The culture of
Ukraine
Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western
neighbours, reflected in its architecture, music and
art.[372][citation needed]
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of
Ukraine.[373] In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in
the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction
of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity.
During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists
and writers again became free to express themselves as they
wanted.[374]
The tradition of the
Easter
Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in
Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then,
the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye
did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the
entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful
pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the
arrival of
Christianity
Christianity to Ukraine.[375] In the city of
Kolomyia
Kolomyia near
the foothills of the
Carpathian Mountains
Carpathian Mountains in 2000 was built the museum
of
Pysanka
Pysanka which won a nomination as the monument of modern
Ukraine
Ukraine in
2007, part of the
Seven Wonders of Ukraine
Seven Wonders of Ukraine action.
Weaving
Weaving and embroidery[edit]
Artisan textile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,[376]
especially in Ukrainian wedding traditions. Ukrainian embroidery,
weaving and lace-making are used in traditional folk dress and in
traditional celebrations.
Ukrainian embroidery
Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the
region of origin[377] and the designs have a long history of motifs,
compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.[378] Use of
colour is very important and has roots in Ukrainian folklore.
Embroidery motifs found in different parts of
Ukraine
Ukraine are preserved in
the
Rushnyk
Rushnyk Museum in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi.
National dress is woven and highly decorated.
Weaving
Weaving with handmade
looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in Rivne
Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two famous personalities in
the scene of national crafts fabrication. Nina Myhailivna[379] and
Uliana Petrivna[380] with international recognition. To preserve this
traditional knowledge the village is planning to open a local weaving
centre, a museum and weaving school.
Literature[edit]
Main article: Ukrainian literature
Taras Shevchenko
Taras Shevchenko self-portrait
Lesya Ukrainka, one of the foremost Ukrainian women writers
The history of
Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian literature dates back to the
11th century, following the Christianisation of the Kievan
Rus'.[381] The writings of the time were mainly liturgical and were
written in Old Church Slavonic. Historical accounts of the time were
referred to as chronicles, the most significant of which was the
Primary Chronicle.[382][g] Literary activity faced a sudden decline
during the Mongol invasion of Rus'.[381]
Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian literature again began to develop in the 14th century,
and was advanced significantly in the 16th century with the
introduction of print and with the beginning of the
Cossack
Cossack era, under
both Russian and Polish dominance.[381] The Cossacks established an
independent society and popularized a new kind of epic poems, which
marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.[382] These advances
were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, when
publishing in the
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian language was outlawed and prohibited.
Nonetheless, by the late 18th century modern literary Ukrainian
finally emerged.[381]
The 19th century initiated a vernacular period in Ukraine, led by
Ivan Kotliarevsky's work Eneyida, the first publication written in
modern Ukrainian. By the 1830s, Ukrainian romanticism began to
develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist
poet-painter
Taras Shevchenko
Taras Shevchenko emerged. Where
Ivan Kotliarevsky
Ivan Kotliarevsky is
considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular;
Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.[383]
Then, in 1863, use of the
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian language in print was effectively
prohibited by the Russian Empire.[60] This severely curtailed literary
activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either
publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlled
Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete
after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.[382]
Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years,
when nearly all literary trends were approved (the most important
literary figures of that time were Mykola Khvylovy, Valerian
Pidmohylny, Mykola Kulish,
Mykhayl Semenko
Mykhayl Semenko and some others). These
policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent
representatives as well as many others were killed by
NKVD
.svg/234px-NKVD_Emblem_(Gradient).svg.png)
NKVD as part of
the Great Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what
was known as the Executed Renaissance.[384] These repressions were
part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine
did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it
required that writers follow a certain style in their works.
In post-Stalinist times literary activities continued to be somewhat
limited under the Communist Party. The most famous figures of
Ukrainian post-war Soviet literature were Lina Kostenko, Dmytro
Pavlychko, Borys Oliynyk (poet), Ivan Drach, Oles Honchar, Vasyl Stus,
Vasyl Symonenko.
Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the
decline and collapse of the
USSR
USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian
independence in 1991.[381]
Architecture[edit]
Main article: Ukrainian architecture
Traditional Ukrainian village architecture in Curitiba, Brazil, which
has a large Ukrainian diaspora.[385]
Ukrainian architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found
in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by
Ukrainians
Ukrainians worldwide.
These include initial roots which were established in the Eastern
Slavic state of Kievan Rus'. Since the Christianization of Kievan Rus'
for several ages
Ukrainian architecture
Ukrainian architecture was influenced by the
Byzantine architecture. After the 12th century, the distinct
architectural history continued in the principalities of
Galicia-Volhynia. During the epoch of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, a new
style unique to
Ukraine
Ukraine was developed under the western influences of
the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the union with the Tsardom
of Russia, many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area
were built in the styles of
Russian architecture
Russian architecture of that period,
whilst the western Galicia was developed under Austro-Hungarian
architectural influences. Ukrainian national motifs would finally be
used during the period of the
Soviet Union
Soviet Union and in modern independent
Ukraine.
The great churches of the Rus', built after the adoption of
Christianity
Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental
architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the
Kievan state was strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern
Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of
church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often
featured scores of small domes, which led some art historians to take
this as an indication of the appearance of pre-
Christian
Christian pagan Slavic
temples.
Several examples of these churches survive; however, during the 16th,
17th and 18th centuries, many were externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian
Baroque
Baroque style (see below). Examples include the grand St. Sophia of
Kiev – the year 1017 is the earliest record of foundation laid,
Church of the Saviour at Berestove
.jpg/550px-Church_of_the_Saviour_at_Berestove_(Side_view).jpg)
Church of the Saviour at Berestove – built from 1113 to 1125 and St.
Cyril's Church, circa 12th-century. All can still be found in the
Ukrainian capital. Several buildings were reconstructed during the
late-19th century, including the Assumption Cathedral in
Volodymyr-Volynskyi, built in 1160 and reconstructed in 1896–1900,
the Paraskevi church in Chernihiv, built in 1201 with reconstruction
done in the late 1940s, and the Golden gates in Kiev, built in 1037
and reconstructed in 1982. The latter's reconstruction was criticised
by some art and architecture historians as a revivalist fantasy.
Unfortunately little secular or vernacular architecture of Kievan Rus'
has survived.
As
Ukraine
Ukraine became increasingly integrated into the Russian Empire,
Russian architects had the opportunity to realise their projects in
the picturesque landscape that many Ukrainian cities and regions
offered. St. Andrew's Church of
Kiev
Kiev (1747–1754), built by
Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is a notable example of
Baroque
Baroque architecture,
and its location on top of the Kievan mountain made it a recognisable
monument of the city. An equally notable contribution of Rasetrelli
was the Mariyinsky Palace, which was built to be a summer residence to
Russian Empress Elizabeth. During the reign of the last
Hetman
Hetman of
Ukraine, Kirill Razumovsky, many of the
Cossack
Cossack Hetmanate's towns such
as Hlukhiv,
Baturyn
Baturyn and
Koselets
Koselets had grandiose projects built by
Andrey Kvasov.
Russia
Russia eventually conquered the south of
Ukraine
Ukraine and
Crimea, and renamed them as New Russia. New cities such as Nikolayev,
Odessa,
Kherson
Kherson and
Sevastopol
Sevastopol were founded. These would contain
notable examples of Imperial Russian architecture.
The Cathedral of Saints
Boris and Gleb
Boris and Gleb in
Chernihiv
Chernihiv dates to Kievan
Rus'. 1030.
Kamianets-Podilskyi
Castle
Castle – one of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine
St Andrew's Church in Kiev, an example of Baroque
Lviv's Old Town; architecture there is much influenced by its history
as part of Austria-
Hungary
Hungary and Poland.
Vorontsov Palace, at the foot of the Crimean Mountains, an example of
Gothic/Moorish Revival architecture
St. Michael's Golden-Domed Cathedral
St. Michael's Golden-Domed Cathedral in Kiev, an example of Ukrainian
Baroque
Example of early 20th century architecture in Lviv
Lviv. The Bernardine church in the style of Italian and Dutch
mannerism
Poltava
Poltava museum, Ukrainian Modern architecture example. 1908.
Central Department store in Kiev,
Stalinist architecture
.jpg/600px-ВДНХ_(Главный_вход).jpg)
Stalinist architecture example
Modern residential architecture in Kharkiv
Schönborn Palace. 1895
In 1934, the capital of Soviet
Ukraine
Ukraine moved from
Kharkiv
Kharkiv to Kiev.
Previously, the city was seen as only a regional centre, hence
received little attention. All of that was to change, at great price.
The first examples of
Stalinist architecture
Stalinist architecture were already showing,
and, in light of the official policy, a new city was to be built on
top of the old one. This meant that much-admired examples such as the
St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery
St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery were destroyed. Even the St.
Sophia Cathedral was under threat. Also, the Second World War
contributed to the wreckage. After the war, a new project for the
reconstruction of central
Kiev
Kiev transformed
Khreshchatyk
Khreshchatyk avenue into a
notable example of Stalinism in Architecture. However, by 1955, the
new politics of architecture once again stopped the project from fully
being realised.
The task for modern
Ukrainian architecture
Ukrainian architecture is diverse application of
modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style
and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. An
example of modern
Ukrainian architecture
Ukrainian architecture is the reconstruction and
renewal of the
Maidan Nezalezhnosti
Maidan Nezalezhnosti in central Kiev. Despite the limit
set by narrow space within the plaza, the engineers were able to blend
together the uneven landscape, and use underground space for a new
shopping centre.
A major project, which may take up most of the 21st century, is the
construction of the
Kiev
Kiev City-Centre on the Rybalskyi Peninsula,
which, when finished, will include a dense skyscraper park amid the
picturesque landscape of the Dnieper.[386]
Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Ukraine
Cossack
Cossack Mamay playing a kobza
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and
many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern
rock,
Ukraine
Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised
musicians including Kirill Karabits,
Okean Elzy
Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements
from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western
music and even into modern jazz.
Mykola Lysenko
Mykola Lysenko is widely considered to be the father of Ukrainian
classical music.[citation needed]
Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic
melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general
characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide
use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented 2nd intervals.
During the
Baroque
Baroque period, music was an important discipline for those
that had received a higher education in Ukraine. It had a place of
considerable importance in the curriculum of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.
Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian
Cossack
Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being
accomplished players of the kobza, bandura or torban.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv,
Ukraine
Ukraine in
1738 and students were taught to sing, play violin and bandura from
manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and
performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having
been born or educated in Hlukhiv, or had been closely associated with
this music school. See: Dmytro Bortniansky,
Maksym Berezovsky and
Artemiy Vedel.
Ukrainian dance
Ukrainian dance hopak
Ukrainian classical music falls into three distinct categories defined
by whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine,
a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was born or at some time was
a citizen of Ukraine, or an ethnic Ukrainian living outside of Ukraine
within the Ukrainian diaspora. The music of these three groups differs
considerably, as do the audiences for whom they cater.
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in
popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player Mariana
Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the
international popularity of groups and performers like Vopli
Vidoplyasova, Dakh Daughters, Dakha Brakha,
Ivan Dorn
Ivan Dorn and Okean Elzy.
Modern musical culture of
Ukraine
Ukraine is presented both with academic and
entertainment music.
Ukraine
Ukraine has five conservatories, 6 opera houses,
five houses of Chamber Music, Philharmony in all regional centers.
Ukraine
Ukraine hosted the
Eurovision Song Contest 2005
Eurovision Song Contest 2005 and the Eurovision
Song Contest 2017.
Cinema[edit]
Main article: Cinema of Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine has had an influence on the history of the cinema. Ukrainian
directors Alexander Dovzhenko, often cited as one of the most
important early Soviet filmmakers, as well as being a pioneer of
Soviet montage theory, Dovzhenko Film Studios, and Sergei Parajanov,
Armenian film director and artist who made significant contributions
to Ukrainian, Armenian and Georgian cinema. He invented his own
cinematic style, Ukrainian poetic cinema, which was totally out of
step with the guiding principles of socialist realism.
Kira Muratova
Other important directors including Kira Muratova, Larisa Shepitko,
Sergei Bondarchuk, Leonid Bykov, Yuri Ilyenko, Leonid Osyka, Ihor
Podolchak with his Delirium and Maryna Vroda. Many Ukrainian actors
have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Vera
Kholodnaya, Bohdan Stupka, Milla Jovovich, Olga Kurylenko, Mila Kunis.
Despite a history of important and successful productions, the
industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity
and the level of European and Russian influence. Ukrainian producers
are active in international co-productions and Ukrainian actors,
directors and crew feature regularly in Russian (Soviet in past)
films. Also successful films have been based on Ukrainian people,
stories or events, including Battleship Potemkin, Man with a Movie
Camera, Everything Is Illuminated.
Ukrainian State
Ukrainian State Film Agency owns National Oleksandr Dovzhenko Film
Centre, film copying laboratory and archive, takes part in hosting of
the
Odessa
Odessa International Film Festival, and
Molodist is the only one
FIAPF accredited International Film Festival held in Ukraine;
competition program is devoted to student, first short and first full
feature films from all over the world. Held annually in October.
Media[edit]
Main article: Media of Ukraine
Ukrayinska Pravda[387] was founded by
Georgiy Gongadze in April 2000
(the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum). Published mainly
in Ukrainian with selected articles published in or translated to
Russian and English, the newspaper has particular emphasis on the
politics of Ukraine. Freedom of the press in
Ukraine
Ukraine is considered to
be among the freest of the post-Soviet states other than the Baltic
states.
Freedom House
Freedom House classifies the
Internet in Ukraine
Internet in Ukraine as "free" and
the press as "partly free". Press freedom has significantly improved
since the
Orange Revolution
Orange Revolution of 2004. However, in 2010 Freedom House
perceived "negative trends in Ukraine".
Kiev
Kiev dominates the media sector in Ukraine: the
Kyiv Post is Ukraine's
leading English-language newspaper. National newspapers Den, Mirror
Weekly, tabloids, such as
The Ukrainian Week
The Ukrainian Week or Focus (Russian), and
television and radio are largely based there, although
Lviv
Lviv is also a
significant national media centre. The National News Agency of
Ukraine,
Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. The
Ukraine
Ukraine publishing
sector, including books, directories and databases, journals,
magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a
combined turnover.
Sanoma
Sanoma publishes Ukrainian editions of such
magazines as Esquire,
Harpers Bazaar
Harpers Bazaar and National Geographic Magazine.
BBC Ukrainian
BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians listen to radio programming, such as
Radio Ukraine
Radio Ukraine or Radio
Liberty, largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours
a day. Several television channels operate, and many Websites are
popular.
Sport[edit]
Main article: Sport in Ukraine
Ukrainian footballer
Andriy Shevchenko
Andriy Shevchenko celebrates a goal against
Sweden
Sweden at Euro 2012.
Ukraine
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical
education. Such policies left
Ukraine
Ukraine with hundreds of stadia,
swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[388] The
most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the
Vyscha Liha ("premier league").
Many
Ukrainians
Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team,
most notably
Ballon d'Or
Ballon d'Or winners
Ihor Belanov
Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin. This
award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the
Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko. The national team made its debut in
the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before losing
to eventual champions, Italy.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians also fared well in boxing,
where the brothers Vitali and
Wladimir Klitschko
Wladimir Klitschko have held world
heavyweight championships.
Sergey Bubka
Sergey Bubka held the record in the
Pole vault
Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with
great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the
world's best athlete on several occasions.[389][390]
Basketball
.JPG/200px-20130103_Tim_Hardaway_Jr_being_fouled_(3).JPG)
Basketball is becoming popular in Ukraine. In 2011,
Ukraine
Ukraine was
granted a right to organize EuroBasket 2015. Two years later the
Ukraine national basketball team
Ukraine national basketball team finished 6th in
EuroBasket 2013
EuroBasket 2013 and
qualified to FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history.
Euroleague
Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional
basketball club in Ukraine.
Chess
Chess is a popular sport in Ukraine.
Ruslan Ponomariov
Ruslan Ponomariov is the former
world champion. There are about 85 Grandmasters and 198 International
Masters in Ukraine.
Rugby league
.jpg/540px-Lance_hohaia_running_into_the_defence_(rugby_league).jpg)
Rugby league is played throughout Ukraine.[391]
Ukraine
Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994 Winter Olympics. So far,
Ukraine at the Olympics
Ukraine at the Olympics has been much more successful in Summer
Olympics (115 medals in five appearances) than in the Winter Olympics.
Ukraine
Ukraine is currently ranked 35th by number of gold medals won in the
All-time Olympic Games medal count, with every country above it,
except for Russia, having more appearances.[citation needed]
Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Ukrainian cuisine
The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and
mushrooms.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes, grains,
fresh, boiled or pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishes
include varenyky (boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes,
sauerkraut, cottage cheese, cherries or berries), nalysnyky (pancakes
with cottage cheese, poppy seeds, mushrooms, caviar or meat),
kapuśniak (soup made with meat, potatoes, carrots, onions, cabbage,
millet, tomato paste, spices and fresh herbs), borscht (soup made of
beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat), holubtsy (stuffed cabbage rolls
filled with rice, carrots, onion and minced meat) and pierogi
(dumplings filled with boiled potatoes and cheese or meat). Ukrainian
specialties also include Chicken
Kiev
Kiev and
Kiev
Kiev cake.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians drink
stewed fruit, juices, milk, buttermilk (they make cottage cheese from
this), mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine and horilka.[392]
Varenyky
Varenyky topped with fried onion
Borscht
Borscht soup with sour cream
Paska, Ukrainian
Easter
Easter bread
See also[edit]
General Secretariat of Ukraine
List of cultural icons of Ukraine
Outline of Ukraine
Ukrainian karbovanets – the first official Ukrainian currency
Ukrainian oligarchs
Notes[edit]
a.^ Among the
Ukrainians
Ukrainians that rose to the highest offices in the
Russian Empire
Russian Empire were Aleksey Razumovsky,
Alexander Bezborodko
.jpg/440px-A.A._Bezborodko_after_Lampi_(ca._1800,_Hillwood).jpg)
Alexander Bezborodko and Ivan
Paskevich. Among the
Ukrainians
Ukrainians who greatly influenced the Russian
Orthodox Church in this period were Stephen Yavorsky, Feofan
Prokopovich and Dimitry of Rostov.
b.^ Estimates on the number of deaths vary. Official Soviet data is
not available because the Soviet government denied the existence of
the famine. See the
Holodomor
Holodomor article for details. Sources differ on
interpreting various statements from different branches of different
governments as to whether they amount to the official recognition of
the
Famine
Famine as
Genocide
Genocide by the country. For example, after the
statement issued by the Latvian Sejm on 13 March 2008, the total
number of countries is given as 19 (according to Ukrainian BBC:
"Латвія визнала Голодомор ґеноцидом"),
16 (according to Korrespondent, Russian edition: "После
продолжительных дебатов Сейм Латвии
признал Голодомор геноцидом
украинцев"), "more than 10" (according to Korrespondent,
Ukrainian edition: "Латвія визнала Голодомор
1932–33 рр. геноцидом українців") Retrieved 27
January 2008.
c.1 2 These figures are likely to be much higher, as they do not
include
Ukrainians
Ukrainians from nations or Ukrainian Jews, but instead only
ethnic Ukrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR.
d.^ This figure excludes
POW
POW deaths.
e.^
Russia
Russia and
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan are the first and second largest but both
these figures include European and Asian territories.
Russia
Russia is the
only country possessing European territories larger than Ukraine.
f.1 2 3 According to the official 2001 census data (by
nationality;[393] by language[394]) about 75 percent of Kiev's
population responded 'Ukrainian' to the native language (ridna mova)
census question, and roughly 25 percent responded 'Russian'. On
the other hand, when the question 'What language do you use in
everyday life?' was asked in the 2003 sociological survey, the
Kievans' answers were distributed as follows: 'mostly Russian':
52 percent, 'both Russian and Ukrainian in equal measure':
32 percent, 'mostly Ukrainian': 14 percent, 'exclusively
Ukrainian': 4.3 percent.
"What language is spoken in Ukraine?". Welcome to Ukraine. February
2003. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
g.^ Such writings were also the base for Russian and Belarusian
literature.
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Print sources[edit]
Reference books[edit]
Encyclopedia of Ukraine
Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) 5
vol; partial online version, from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian
Studies
Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1 ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC;
University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp
Dalton, Meredith.
Ukraine
Ukraine (Culture Shock! A Survival Guide to Customs
& Etiquette) (2001)
Evans, Andrew.
Ukraine
Ukraine (2nd ed 2007) The Bradt Travel Guide online
excerpts and search at Amazon.com
Johnstone, Sarah.
Ukraine
Ukraine (Lonely Planet Travel Guides) (2005)
Recent (since 1991)[edit]
Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul.Revolution in Orange: The Origins
of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (2006)
Birch, Sarah. Elections and Democratization in
Ukraine
Ukraine Macmillan, 2000
online edition
Edwards Mike: "Ukraine – Running on empty" National Geographic
Magazine March 1993
Katchanovski, Ivan: Cleft Countries: Regional Political Divisions and
Cultures in Post-Soviet
Ukraine
Ukraine and Moldova, Ibidem-Verlag, 2006,
ISBN 978-3-89821-558-9
Kuzio, Taras: Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet
Transformation, M.E. Sharpe, 1998, ISBN 0-7656-0224-5
Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building Routledge, 1998
online edition
Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I., Multilingual education as a factor
of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine, in Language
Education for Intercultural Communication, By D. E. Ager, George
Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993,
ISBN 1-85359-204-8
Shen, Raphael (1996). Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors,
Lessons. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-95240-1.
Whitmore, Sarah. State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament,
1990–2003 Routledge, 2004 online edition
Wilson, Andrew, Ukraine's
Orange Revolution
Orange Revolution (2005)
Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation, 2nd ed. 2002;
online excerpts at Amazon
Wilson, Andrew, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57457-9
Zon, Hans van. The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine. 2000
online edition
History[edit]
UKRAINIAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC BETWEEN 40/10.000 BP
Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The
Ukraine
Ukraine after World
War II (Rutgers UP, 1964) online
Hrushevsky, Michael. A
History of Ukraine
History of Ukraine (1986)
Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich,
Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second Edition. Scarecrow
Press, 2013. 968 pp.
Kononenko, Konstantyn.
Ukraine
Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic
Relations between
Ukraine
Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette
University Press 1958) online
Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An
Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. (1996)
Magocsi, Paul Robert, A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto
Press, 1996 ISBN 0-8020-7820-6
Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine
(2003) online edition
Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History, 1st edition. Toronto: University
of Toronto Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8020-8390-0.
Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation (Oxford University
Press 2007) online
World War II[edit]
Boshyk, Yuri (1986).
Ukraine
Ukraine During World War II: History and Its
Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.
ISBN 0-920862-37-3.
Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in
Ukraine
Ukraine Under
Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
Cliff, Tony (1984). Class Struggle and Women's Liberation. Bookmarks.
ISBN 0-906224-12-8.
Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's
Western Ukraine
Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988).
Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. U. of
North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp.
Piotrowski Tadeusz, Poland's Holocaust:
Ethnic
Ethnic Strife, Collaboration
with Occupying Forces and
Genocide
Genocide in the Second Republic,
1918–1947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3
Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and
Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp.
Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust In The Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine
& Co, 2005. 394 pp.
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internal sovereignty
Finland
Åland Islands
autonomous region subject to the Åland Convention of 1921
Norway
Svalbard
unincorporated area subject to the
Svalbard
Svalbard Treaty
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland
country of the
United Kingdom
United Kingdom subject to the British-Irish Agreement
1 Oceanic islands within the vicinity of
Europe
Europe are usually grouped
with the continent even though they are not situated on its
continental shelf.
2 Some countries completely outside the conventional geographical
boundaries of
Europe
Europe are commonly associated with the continent due to
ethnological links.
Ukraine
Ukraine portal
Europe
Europe portal
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 134334037
LCCN: n81017756
ISNI: 0000 0001 2358 7973
GND: 4061496-7
SUDOC: 02640267X
BNF: cb11865672n (data)
HDS: 25007
NDL: 0057