Treatise on light

''Treatise on Light: In Which Are Explained the Causes of That Which Occurs in Reflection & Refraction'' (french: Traité de la Lumière'': Où Sont Expliquées les Causes de ce qui Luy Arrive Dans la Reflexion & Dans la Refraction'') is a book written by Dutch polymath Christiaan Huygens that was published in French in 1690. The book describes Huygens's conception of the nature of light propagation which makes it possible to explain the laws of geometrical optics shown in Descartes's ''Dioptrique'', which Huygens aimed to replace.

Unlike Newton's corpuscular theory, which was presented in the ''Opticks'', Huygens conceived of light as an irregular series of shock waves which proceeds with very great, but finite, velocity through the ''aether'', similar to sound waves. Moreover, he proposed that each point of a wavefront is itself the origin of a secondary spherical wave, a principle known today as the Huygens–Fresnel principle.Bos, H. J. M. (1973)
Huygens, Christiaan
''Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', pp. 597-613. The book is considered a pioneering work of theoretical and mathematical physics and the first mechanistic account of an unobservable physical phenomenon.

Overview

Huygens worked on the mathematics of light rays and the properties of refraction in his work ''Dioptrica'', which began in 1652 but remained unpublished, and which predated his lens grinding work. In 1672, the problem of the strange refraction of the Iceland crystal created a puzzle regarding the physics of refraction that Huygens wanted to solve. Huygens eventually was able to solve this problem by means of elliptical waves in 1677 and confirmed his theory by experiments mostly after critical reactions in 1679.

His explanation of birefringence was based on three hypotheses: (1) There are inside the crystal two media in which light waves proceed, (2) one medium behaves as ordinary ether and carries the normally refracted ray, and (3) the velocity of the waves in the other medium is dependent on direction, so that the waves do not expand in spherical form, but rather as ellipsoids of revolution; this second medium carries the abnormally refracted ray. By studying the symmetry of the crystal, Huygens was able to determine the direction of the axis of the ellipsoids, and from the refraction properties of the abnormal ray he established the proportion between the axes. He calculated the refraction of rays on plane sections of the crystal other than the natural crystal sides, and ultimately verified all his results experimentally.

Huygens intended to publish his results as part of the ''Dioptrica'' but decided to separate his theory from the rest of the work at the last minute, marking the transition from geometrical to physical optics. More than a century later, it would take Étienne Malus and others fifteen years to reconstruct Huygens's ideas of rays and wavefronts.Shapiro, A. E. (1980). Huygens' kinematic theory of light. In H.J.M. Bos, M.J.S. Rudwick, H.A.M. Snelders, & R.P.W. Visser (Eds.), ''Studies on Christiaan Huygens'' (pp. 200-220). Swets & Zeitlinger B.V.

Contents

Propagation medium

In the first chapter, Huygens describes light as a disturbance which moves in a material medium of an unknown nature which he calls ''ethereal,'' and which is different from that which propagates sound. This ethereal matter is composed of elastic particles of matter which collide according to laws he discovered in 1669.

Huygens considers that the structure of matter is atomic, made up of an assembly of particles "which touch each other without composing a continuous solid." Light waves can therefore move from one particle to another without these being displaced. Another way of looking at the problem of propagation is to consider that it is not the particles of the transparent medium which transmit light but the particles of ethereal matter which permeate the interstices of the solid or liquid matter (or even a vacuum, since light passes through the top of Torricelli's barometer). Finally, Huygens considers a third type of light propagation that would be a combination of the first two.

Another concept discussed in the first chapter is the speed of light, where Huygens originally takes up the temporal conception of Pierre de Fermat. He considers that the "shaking" producing light waves necessarily moves at finite speed, even if it is very high. This point is very important because its demonstrations are based on the equivalence of travel times on different paths. Huygens reports on a letter from 1677 by Ole Christensen Rømer where the speed of light is said to be at least 100,000 times faster than the speed of sound, and possibly six times higher. In the latter case, the speed found by Rømer (214,000 km /s) was of the same order of magnitude as the speed of light admitted today.

Nature of the wavefront

Following his remarks on the propagation medium and the speed of light, Huygens gives a geometric illustration of the wavefront, the foundation of what became known as Huygens’ Principle. His principle of propagation is a demonstration of how a wave of light (or rather a pulse) emanating from a point also results in smaller wavelets: Howard, N. (2003). ''Christiaan Huygens: The construction of texts and audiences'' (pp. 241-253). Indiana University.

This means that each particle in the ''aether'' is the source of a new wavefront, and although these “secondary wavelets” are characterized by Huygens as “feeble,” points on each wavelet collectively form the primary wave that is visible as light. The new wavefront, then, is the tangential surface to all the secondary wavelets in the direction of propagation.

Critical to Huygens’s analysis is that these secondary wavelets can be mathematically constructed, allowing one to work backward from the secondary wavelets to construct a primary wave which has traveled for a certain time. This, then, is the principle on which Huygens's entire theory of light turns, and it is what separates his theory from those of his predecessors.

Remainder of the book

Chapter two briefly treats reflection while chapters three and four explore refraction. Huygens carefully explains the differences between transparent and opaque media in terms of their particulate composition, specifically exploring atmospheric refraction.

Chapter five addresses the strange refraction of the Iceland crystal. Huygens breaks down the geometry of a piece of the crystal and then guides the reader through a series of step-by-step investigations, covering several pages. These investigations were prompted by early objections from Rømer and constitute one of the few examples in Huygens’s work where he provided such details regarding experiments. Huygens employed these mathematical and experimental resources to their utmost, achieving extraordinary results which defied verification until the beginning of the 19th century.

Chapter six of the book concludes with a discussion on refraction and reflection in transparent bodies.

Legacy

Huygens's major accomplishment in ''Traité de la Lumière'' is the demonstration that one could derive all the essential features of rectilinear propagation, reflection, and simple and double refraction from the rate of propagation of light waves alone. By reducing the ray to a geometrical construct devoid of physical character, Huygens was able to treat the theory of light kinematically (and thereby mathematically), allow him to succeed where his predecessors have failed.

Although the completeness of Huygens's analysis is impressive, he was unable to comprehend the effect that we now recognize as polarization, which occurs if the refracted ray is directed through a second crystal of which the orientation is varied. He also did not address a number of issues, such as chromatic aberration and color, both of which were explained by Newton, although he had experienced them while building his telescopes.

Apart from Antoine Parent and René Just Haüy, Huygens's ideas in the ''Traité de la Lumière'' were largely forgotten in the century after its publication. They were taken up and developed independently by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in the early 19th century and later published in his ''Mémoire sur la Diffraction de la Lumière'' (1818). Fresnel subsequently became aware of Huygens's work and used Huygens's principle to give a complete explanation of the rectilinear propagation and diffraction effects of light in 1821. The principle is now known as the Huygens–Fresnel Principle.

See also

*Iceland spar
*Luminiferous aether

References

External links

* C. Huygens, ''Traité de la Lumière'', Leiden: Pieter van der Aa, 1690
archive.org/details/bub_gb_kVxsaYdZaaoC
* C. Huygens (translated by Silvanus P. Thompson), ''Treatise on Light'', London: Macmillan, 1912
archive.org/details/treatiseonlight031310mbp
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* C. Huygens (translated by Silvanus P. Thompson, 1912), ''Treatise on Light'', Project Gutenberg, 2005
gutenberg.org/ebooks/14725
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1690 books
Physics books
History of optics
Historical physics publications
17th-century Dutch books
French-language books
Books by Christiaan Huygens
Treatises