Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation (Latin: transsubstantiatio; Greek:
μετουσίωσις metousiosis) is, according to the teachings of
the Roman Catholic Church, the change of substance or essence by which
the bread and wine offered in the sacrifice of the sacrament of the
Eucharist
Eucharist during the Mass, become, in reality, the body and blood of
Jesus
Jesus Christ.
The
Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church teaches that in the Eucharistic offering
bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Christ.[1] The
reaffirmation of this doctrine was expressed, using the word
"transubstantiate", by the
Fourth Council of the Lateran
Fourth Council of the Lateran in
1215.[2][3] It was later challenged by various 14th century
reformers—
John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe in particular.[4]
The manner in which the change occurs, the Roman Catholic Church
teaches, is a mystery: "The signs of bread and wine become, in a way
surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ."[5]:1333 The
precise terminology to be used to refer to the nature of the Eucharist
and its theological implications has a contentious history, especially
in the Protestant Reformation.[6]
In the Greek Orthodox Church, the doctrine has been discussed under
the term of metousiosis, coined as a direct loan-translation of
transsubstantiatio in the 17th century. In
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy in
general, the Sacred Mystery (Sacrament) of the
Eucharist
Eucharist is more
commonly discussed using alternative terms such as
"trans-elementation" (μεταστοιχείωσις,
metastoicheiosis), "re-ordination" (μεταρρύθμισις,
metarrhythmisis), or simply "change" (μεταβολή, metabole).
Contents
1 History
1.1 Patristic period
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 Reformation
1.3.1 Council of Trent
2 Theology
2.1 Roman Catholic Church
2.2 In late Medieval Orthodox - Catholic debates
2.3 Eastern Christianity
2.4 Protestantism
2.4.1 Anglicanism
2.4.2 Lutheranism
2.4.3 Reformed churches
2.4.4 Methodism
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Patristic period[edit]
A 3rd-century fresco in the Catacomb of Callixtus, interpreted by the
archaeologist Joseph Wilpert as showing on the left
Jesus
Jesus multiplying
bread and fish, a symbol of the Eucharistic consecration, and on the
right a representation of the deceased, who through participation in
the
Eucharist
Eucharist has obtained eternal happiness[7]
The belief that the bread and wine that form the matter of the
Eucharist
Eucharist become the body and blood of Christ appears to have been
widespread from an early date, with early Christian writers referring
to them as his body and the blood. They speak of them as the same
flesh and blood which suffered and died on the cross.[8][9]
The short document known as the Teaching of the Apostles or Didache,
which may be the earliest Christian document outside of the New
Testament to speak of the Eucharist, says, "Let no one eat or drink of
your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into the name of the
Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, 'Give not that which
is holy to the dogs'."[10]
A letter by
Saint
Saint
Ignatius of Antioch
_-_Ignatios.jpg/450px-Hosios_Loukas_(south_west_chapel,_south_side)_-_Ignatios.jpg)
Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans, written in about
AD 106 says: "I desire the bread of God, the heavenly bread, the bread
of life, which is the flesh of
Jesus
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who
became afterwards of the seed of David and Abraham; and I desire the
drink of God, namely His blood, which is incorruptible love and
eternal life."[11]
Writing to the Christians of Smyrna in the same year, he warned them
to "stand aloof from such heretics", because, among other reasons,
"they abstain from the
Eucharist
Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess
not the
Eucharist
Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour
Jesus
Jesus Christ, which
suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised
up again."[8]
In about 150, Justin Martyr, referring to the Eucharist, wrote: "Not
as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like
manner as
Jesus
Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word
of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have
we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His
word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are
nourished, is the flesh and blood of that
Jesus
Jesus who was made
flesh."[12]
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr wrote, in the Dialogue with Trypho, ch 70: "Now it is
evident, that in this prophecy [allusion is made] to the bread which
our Christ gave us to eat, in remembrance of His being made flesh for
the sake of His believers, for whom also He suffered; and to the cup
which He gave us to drink, in remembrance of His own blood, with
giving of thanks."[13]
In about 200 AD,
Tertullian
Tertullian wrote: "Having taken the bread and given
it to His disciples, He made it His own body, by saying, This is my
body, that is, the figure of my body. A figure, however, there could
not have been, unless there were first a veritable body. An empty
thing, or phantom, is incapable of a figure. If, however, (as Marcion
might say) He pretended the bread was His body, because He lacked the
truth of bodily substance, it follows that He must have given bread
for us."[14]
The
Apostolic Constitutions
Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c. 380) says: "Let the bishop
give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ; and let him that
receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup; and when he
gives it, say, The blood of Christ, the cup of life; and let him that
drinketh say, Amen."[15]
Saint
Saint
Ambrose
Ambrose of Milan (d. 397) wrote:
Perhaps you will say, "I see something else, how is it that you assert
that I receive the Body of Christ?" ... Let us prove that this is not
what nature made, but what the blessing consecrated, and the power of
blessing is greater than that of nature, because by blessing nature
itself is changed. ... For that sacrament which you receive is made
what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such
power as to bring down fire from heaven, shall not the word of Christ
have power to change the nature of the elements? ... Why do you seek
the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing that the Lord Jesus
Himself was born of a Virgin, not according to nature? It is the true
Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the
Sacrament
Sacrament of His Body. The Lord
Jesus
Jesus Himself proclaims: "This Is My
Body." Before the blessing of the heavenly words another nature is
spoken of, after the consecration the Body is signified. He Himself
speaks of His Blood. Before the consecration it has another name,
after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true. Let
the heart within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what
the voice speaks."[9]
Other fourth-century Christian writers say that in the
Eucharist
Eucharist there
occurs a "change",[16] "transelementation",[17] "transformation",[18]
"transposing",[19] "alteration"[20] of the bread into the body of
Christ.
In AD 400,
Augustine
_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354–430).jpg/440px-Gerard_Seghers_(attr)_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354–430).jpg)
Augustine quotes
Cyprian
Cyprian (AD 200): "For as Christ says 'I
am the true vine,' it follows that the blood of Christ is wine, not
water; and the cup cannot appear to contain His blood by which we are
redeemed and quickened, if the wine be absent; for by the wine is the
blood of Christ typified, ..."[21]
Middle Ages[edit]
The
Last Supper
Last Supper (upper image) and preparatory washing of feet (lower
image) in a 1220 manuscript in the Badische Landesbibliothek
The doctrine of transubstantiation is the result of a theological
dispute started in the 11th century, when
Berengar of Tours
Berengar of Tours denied
that any material change in the elements was needed to explain the
Eucharistic Presence, thereby provoking a considerable stir.[22]
Berengar's position was never diametrically opposed to that of his
critics, and he was probably never excommunicated, but the
controversies that he aroused (see Stercoranism) forced people to
clarify the doctrine of the Eucharist.[23] The earliest known use of
the term "transubstantiation" to describe the change from bread and
wine to body and blood of Christ in the
Eucharist
Eucharist was by Hildebert de
Lavardin, Archbishop of Tours, in the 11th century.[24] By the end of
the 12th century the term was in widespread use.[22]
The
Fourth Council of the Lateran
Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine
as "transubstantiated" into the body and blood of Christ: "His body
and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the
forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been
transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood".[25] It
was only later in the 13th century that Aristotelian metaphysics was
accepted and a philosophical elaboration in line with that metaphysics
was developed, which found classic formulation in the teaching of
Thomas Aquinas."[22]
Reformation[edit]
During the Protestant Reformation, the doctrine of transubstantiation
was heavily criticised as an Aristotelian "pseudophilosophy"[26]
imported into Christian teaching and jettisoned in favor of Martin
Luther's doctrine of sacramental union, or in favor, per Huldrych
Zwingli, of the
Eucharist
Eucharist as memorial.[27]
Title page of Martin Luther's De Captivitate Babylonica Ecclesiae
In the Protestant Reformation, the doctrine of transubstantiation
became a matter of much controversy.
Martin Luther
Martin Luther held that "It is
not the doctrine of transubstantiation which is to be believed, but
simply that Christ really is present at the Eucharist".[28] In his "On
the Babylonian Captivity of the Church" (published on 6 October 1520)
Luther wrote:
Therefore, it is an absurd and unheard-of juggling with words, to
understand "bread" to mean "the form, or accidents of bread," and
"wine" to mean "the form, or accidents of wine." Why do they not also
understand all other things to mean their forms, or accidents? Even if
this might be done with all other things, it would yet not be right
thus to emasculate the words of God and arbitrarily to empty them of
their meaning.
Moreover, the Church had the true faith for more than twelve hundred
years, during which time the holy Fathers never once mentioned this
transubstantiation — certainly, a monstrous word for a monstrous
idea — until the pseudo-philosophy of
Aristotle
Aristotle became rampant in
the Church these last three hundred years. During these centuries many
other things have been wrongly defined, for example, that the Divine
essence neither is begotten nor begets, that the soul is the
substantial form of the human body, and the like assertions, which are
made without reason or sense, as the Cardinal of Cambray himself
admits.[29]
In his 1528
Confession Concerning Christ's Supper he wrote:
Why then should we not much more say in the Supper, "This is my body",
even though bread and body are two distinct substances, and the word
"this" indicates the bread? Here, too, out of two kinds of objects a
union has taken place, which I shall call a "sacramental union",
because Christ's body and the bread are given to us as a sacrament.
This is not a natural or personal union, as is the case with God and
Christ. It is also perhaps a different union from that which the dove
has with the Holy Spirit, and the flame with the angel, but it is also
assuredly a sacramental union.[30]
What Luther thus called a "sacramental union" is often erroneously
called consubstantiation by non-Lutherans. In "On the Babylonian
Captivity", Luther upheld belief in the Real Presence of
Jesus
Jesus and, in
his 1523 treatise The Adoration of the Sacrament, defended adoration
of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist.
Huldrych Zwingli
Huldrych Zwingli taught that the sacrament is purely symbolic and
memorial in character, arguing that this was the meaning of Jesus'
instruction: "Do this in remembrance of me".[31]
King
Henry VIII
Henry VIII of England, though breaking with the Pope, kept many
essentials of Catholic doctrine, including Transubstantiation. This
was enshrined in the Six Articles of 1539, and the death penalty
specifically prescribed for any who denied Transubstantiation.
This was changed under Elizabeth I. In the 39 articles of 1563, the
Church of England
Church of England declared: "
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation (or the change of the
substance of Bread and Wine) in the Supper of the Lord, cannot be
proved by holy Writ; but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture,
overthroweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to
many superstitions";[32] and made Mass illegal.[33]
For a century and half - 1672 to 1828 -
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation had an
important role, in a negative way, in British political and social
life. Under the Test Act, the holding of any public office was made
conditional upon explicitly adjuring Transubstantiation. Any aspirant
to public office had to repeat the formula set out by the law: I, N,
do declare that I do believe that there is not any transubstantiation
in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, or in the elements of the bread
and wine, at or after the consecration thereof by any person
whatsoever.
Council of Trent[edit]
In 1551, the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent confirmed the doctrine of
transubstantiation as Catholic dogma, stating that "by the
consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the
whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ
our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of
his blood. This change the holy
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has fittingly and
properly called transubstantiation."[34] In its 13th session ending 11
October 1551, the Council defined transubstantiation as "that
wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance of the bread
into the Body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the Blood
– the species only of the bread and wine remaining – which
conversion indeed the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church most aptly calls
Transubstantiation".[34] This council officially approved use of the
term "transubstantiation" to express the Catholic Church's teaching on
the subject of the conversion of the bread and wine into the body and
blood of Christ in the Eucharist, with the aim of safeguarding
Christ's presence as a literal truth, while emphasizing the fact that
there is no change in the empirical appearances of the bread and
wine.[35] It did not however impose the Aristotelian theory of
substance and accidents: it spoke only of the species (the
appearances), not the philosophical term "accidents", and the word
"substance" was in ecclesiastical use for many centuries before
Aristotelian philosophy
Aristotelian philosophy was adopted in the West,[36] as shown for
instance by its use in the
Nicene Creed
Nicene Creed which speaks of Christ having
the same "οὐσία" (Greek) or "substantia" (Latin) as the Father.
Theology[edit]
Further information:
Eucharistic theology
Eucharistic theology and Real presence
Roman Catholic Church[edit]
Further information: Substance theory
The Disputation of the Holy
Sacrament
Sacrament (
Raphael
Raphael 1509-1510) depicts
theologians debating Transubstantiation, including four Doctors of the
Church, with
Pope Gregory I
Pope Gregory I and
Jerome
Jerome seated to the left of the altar
and
Augustine
Augustine and
Ambrose
Ambrose to the right, Pope Julius II, Pope Sixtus
IV,
Savonarola
Savonarola and Dante Alighieri.[37]
While the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation in relation to the
Eucharist
Eucharist can be viewed in terms of the Aristotelian distinction
between substance and accident, Catholic theologians generally hold
that, "in referring to the Eucharist, the Church does not use the
terms substance and accident in their philosophical contexts but in
the common and ordinary sense in which they were first used many
centuries ago. The dogma of transubstantiation does not embrace any
philosophical theory in particular."[38] This ambiguity is recognized
also by a Lutheran theologian such as Jaroslav Pelikan, who, while
himself interpreting the terms as Aristotelian, states that "the
application of the term 'substance' to the discussion of the
Eucharistic presence antedates the rediscovery of Aristotle. [...]
Even 'transubstantiation' was used during the twelfth century in a
nontechnical sense. Such evidence lends credence to the argument that
the doctrine of transubstantiation, as codified by the decrees of the
Fourth Lateran and Tridentine councils, did not canonize Aristotelian
philosophy as indispensable to Christian doctrine. But whether it did
so or not in principle, it has certainly done so in effect".[39]
The view that the distinction is independent of any philosophical
theory has been expressed as follows: "The distinction between
substance and accidents is real, not just imaginary. In the case of
the person, the distinction between the person and his or her
accidental features is after all real. Therefore, even though the
notion of substance and accidents originated from Aristotelian
philosophy, the distinction between substance and accidents is also
independent of philosophical and scientific development."[40]
"Substance" here means what something is in itself: A hat's shape is
not the hat itself, nor is its colour, size, softness to the touch,
nor anything else about it perceptible to the senses. The hat itself
(the "substance") has the shape, the color, the size, the softness and
the other appearances, but is distinct from them. While the
appearances are perceptible to the senses, the substance is not.[41]
The philosophical term "accidents" does not appear in the teaching of
the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent on transubstantiation, which is repeated in the
Vatican-approved
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church (at the only point
in which the latter uses the word "transubstantiation"). For what the
Council distinguishes from the "substance" of the bread and wine it
uses the term species:
The
Council of Trent
Council of Trent summarizes the Catholic faith by declaring:
"Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he
was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the
conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares
again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes
place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance
of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine
into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church
has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."[42]
The
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church cites the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent also
in regard to the mode of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist:
The mode of Christ's presence under the Eucharistic species is unique.
It raises the
Eucharist
Eucharist above all the sacraments as "the perfection of
the spiritual life and the end to which all the sacraments tend." (St.
Thomas Aquinas, STh III, 73, 3c.) In the most blessed sacrament of the
Eucharist
Eucharist "the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity, of
our Lord
Jesus
Jesus Christ and, therefore, the whole Christ is truly,
really, and substantially contained." (
Council of Trent
Council of Trent (1551): DS
1651) "This presence is called 'real' - by which is not intended to
exclude the other types of presence as if they could not be 'real'
too, but because it is presence in the fullest sense: that is to say,
it is a substantial presence by which Christ, God and man, makes
himself wholly and entirely present." (Paul VI, MF 39).[43]:1374
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church holds that the same change of the substance of the
bread and of the wine at the
Last Supper
Last Supper continues to occur at the
consecration of the Eucharist[43]:1377[44] when the words are spoken
in persona Christi "This is my body ... this is my blood." In Orthodox
confessions, the change is said to start during the Dominical or
Lord's Words or Institution Narrative and be completed during the
Epiklesis.[45]
Teaching that Christ is risen from the dead and is alive, the Catholic
Church holds that when the bread is changed into his body, not only
his body is present, but Christ as a whole is present (i.e. body and
blood, soul and divinity.) The same holds for the wine changed into
his blood.[46] This teaching goes beyond the doctrine of
transubstantiation, which directly concerns only the change of the
substance of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.
In accordance with the dogmatic teaching that Christ is really, truly
and substantially present under the remaining appearances of bread and
wine, and continues to be present as long as those appearances remain,
the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church preserves the consecrated elements, generally in a
church tabernacle, for administering
Holy Communion
Holy Communion to the sick and
dying, and also for the secondary, but still highly prized, purpose of
adoring Christ present in the Eucharist.
The
Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church declares that the doctrine of
transubstantiation is concerned with what is changed, and not how the
change occurs; it teaches that the appearances (the "species") that
remain are real, not an illusion, and that Christ is "really, truly,
and substantially present" in the Eucharist.[43]:1374 To touch the
smallest particle of the host or the smallest droplet from the chalice
is to touch
Jesus
Jesus Christ himself, as when one person touches another
on the back of the hand with only a fingertip and in so doing touches
not merely a few skin cells but touches the whole person: "Christ is
present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire
in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread
does not divide Christ."[47]
In the arguments which characterised the relationship between Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism in the 16th century, the Council of
Trent declared subject to the ecclesiastical penalty of anathema
anyone who:
"denieth, that, in the sacrament of the most holy Eucharist, are
contained truly, really, and substantially, the body and blood
together with the soul and divinity of our Lord
Jesus
Jesus Christ, and
consequently the whole Christ; but saith that He is only therein as in
a sign, or in figure, or virtue" and anyone who "saith, that, in the
sacred and holy sacrament of the Eucharist, the substance of the bread
and wine remains conjointly with the body and blood of our Lord Jesus
Christ, and denieth that wonderful and singular conversion of the
whole substance of the bread into the Body, and of the whole substance
of the wine into the Blood - the species only of the bread and wine
remaining - which conversion indeed the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church most aptly
calls Transubstantiation, let him be anathema."[34]
As already stated, the
Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church asserts that the
"species" that remain are real. In the sacrament these are the signs
of the reality that they efficaciously signify,[48] not symbols. And
by definition sacraments are "efficacious signs of grace, instituted
by Christ and entrusted to the Catholic Church, by which divine life
is dispensed to us."[49]
In The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist: The
Eucharist
Eucharist and Its
Effects (2000-2012), James H. Dobbins, citing the work This Tremendous
Lover (1989), by Dom Eugene Boylan,[50] expresses the paradox of Holy
Communion:
"Ordinary food is consumed and becomes that which consumes it. In the
Eucharist, we consume God and become that which we consume."[51]
According to Catholic teaching, the whole of Christ, body and blood,
soul and divinity, is in the sacrament, under each of the appearances
of bread and wine and in each part of the appearances of bread and
wine (since the substance of bread or wine is in each part of ordinary
bread or wine, and the substance of Christ is in each part of the
consecrated and transubstantiated elements of the host and the cup of
the sacrament), but he is not in the sacrament as in a place and is
not moved when the sacrament is moved. He is perceptible neither by
the sense nor by the imagination, but only by the intellectual
eye.[52]
St.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas gave poetic expression to this perception in the
devotional hymn Adoro te devote:
Godhead here in hiding, whom I do adore,
Masked by these bare shadows, shape and nothing more,
See, Lord, at thy service low lies here a heart
Lost, all lost in wonder at the God thou art.
Seeing, touching, tasting are in thee deceived:
How says trusty hearing? that shall be believed.
What God's Son has told me, take for truth I do;
Truth
Truth himself speaks truly or there's nothing true.
—English translation of Adoro Te Devote
An official statement from the Anglican–Roman Catholic International
Commission titled Eucharistic Doctrine, published in 1971, states that
'the word transubstantiation is commonly used in the Roman Catholic
Church to indicate that God acting in the
Eucharist
Eucharist effects a change
in the inner reality of the elements. The term should be seen as
affirming the fact of Christ's presence and of the mysterious and
radical change which takes places. In contemporary Roman Catholic
theology it is not understood as explaining how the change takes
place'.[53]
In late Medieval Orthodox - Catholic debates[edit]
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From the period of the Dominican-Orthodox controversies witnessed by
the Fourteenth Century theologian
Nicholas Kabasilas
Nicholas Kabasilas until the Council
of Florence and the "libellus (booklet)" of Mark of Ephesus, the
Orthodox Church took the position of "a double moment of consecration"
at the words "This is my body/blood" and the epiclesis (i.e. the part
of the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) by which the priest invokes the
Holy Spirit
Holy Spirit (or the power of His blessing) upon the Eucharistic bread
and wine.[54]
John Torquemada
John Torquemada opposed the Orthodox position at the Council of
Florence - despite this Orthodox position being a normative
interpretation of the De sacramentis and De mysteriis of St. Ambrose.
This was all the more ironic since Torquemada cited Paschasius
Radbertus (who himself had claimed to quote Augustine) in his Sermo
alter in the Acta Latina, in order to refute the Roman Emperor John
VIII Palaiologos (who was relying on Mark of Ephesus' "libellus").
The end result was that, though Western theologians from Radbertus
until
St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio
St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio had held for the consecratory
potential of the epiclesis, Torquemada represented the Dominican
position as if it was universal and non-controversial among the
Latins. In fact, Torquemada's overconfidence was the result of having
studied the works of
Pope Benedict XII
Pope Benedict XII in his debates against Mark of
Ephesus at Ferrara in 1437.
In these debates, Benedict had condemned an alleged Armenian theory
(never verified among any of the dozen or so Armenian commentaries
from the period) that denied all consecratory value to the words of
institution and confined the consecration ONLY to the epiclesis (which
was not the Byzantine position). Lastly, the Armenians were alleged to
hold that the eucharistic change was not substantial and only
imperfect and typological, and therefore not transubstantiation.
The arguments, that Benedict XII's letter to the missionaries (c.
1340) addressed, relied on Aquinas' premises - which was no surprise
given Benedict and
Pope Clement VI
Pope Clement VI
Thomist
Thomist preferences. However, the
position which he attributed to the Orthodox was confused for the
actual Byzantine position expressed from Kabasilas to the Council of
Florence. This has led to a gross misunderstanding, still evident also
among modern and contemporary scholars when attempting to speak of
Theological differences between the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church and the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
Eastern Christianity[edit]
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Main article: Metousiosis
As the Disputation of the Holy
Sacrament
Sacrament took place in the Western
Church after the Great Schism, the Eastern Churches remained largely
unaffected by it. The debate on the nature of "transubstantiation" in
Greek Orthodoxy begins in the 17th century, with Cyril Lucaris, whose
The Eastern Confession of the Orthodox Faith was published in Latin in
1629. The Greek term metousiosis (μετουσίωσις) is first
used as the translation of Latin transubstantiatio in the Greek
edition of the work, published in 1633.
The Eastern Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox Churches,
along with the Assyrian Church of the East, agree that in a valid
Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy bread and wine truly and actually become the body and
blood of Christ. In Orthodox confessions, the change is said to start
during the
Liturgy of Preparation
Liturgy of Preparation and be completed during the
Epiklesis. However, there are official church documents that speak of
a "change" (in Greek μεταβολή) or "metousiosis"
(μετουσίωσις) of the bread and wine.
"Μετ-ουσί-ωσις" (met-ousi-osis) is the Greek word used to
represent the Latin word "trans-substanti-atio",[55][56] as Greek
"μετα-μόρφ-ωσις" (meta-morph-osis) corresponds to Latin
"trans-figur-atio". Examples of official documents of the Eastern
Orthodox Church that use the term "μετουσίωσις" or
"transubstantiation" are the Longer Catechism of The Orthodox,
Catholic, Eastern Church (question 340) and the declaration by the
Eastern Orthodox
Synod of Jerusalem
Synod of Jerusalem of 1672:
"In the celebration of [the Eucharist] we believe the Lord Jesus
Christ to be present. He is not present typically, nor figuratively,
nor by superabundant grace, as in the other Mysteries, nor by a bare
presence, as some of the Fathers have said concerning Baptism, or by
impanation, so that the Divinity of the Word is united to the set
forth bread of the
Eucharist
Eucharist hypostatically, as the followers of
Luther most ignorantly and wretchedly suppose. But [he is present]
truly and really, so that after the consecration of the bread and of
the wine, the bread is transmuted, transubstantiated, converted and
transformed into the true Body Itself of the Lord, Which was born in
Bethlehem of the ever-Virgin, was baptized in the Jordan, suffered,
was buried, rose again, was received up, sits at the right hand of the
God and Father, and is to come again in the clouds of Heaven; and the
wine is converted and transubstantiated into the true Blood Itself of
the Lord, Which as He hung upon the Cross, was poured out for the life
of the world.[57]
It should be noted, that the way in which the bread and wine become
the body and blood of Christ has never been dogmatically defined by
the Eastern Orthodox Churches. However, St Theodore the Studite writes
in his treatise On the Holy Icons: "for we confess that the faithful
receive the very body and blood of Christ, according to the voice of
God himself."[58] This was a refutation of the iconoclasts, who
insisted that the eucharist was the only true icon of Christ. Thus, it
can be argued that by being part of the dogmatic "horos" against the
iconoclast heresy, the teaching on the "real presence" of Christ in
the eucharist is indeed a dogma of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Protestantism[edit]
Anglicanism[edit]
Official writings of the churches of the
Anglican Communion
Anglican Communion have
consistently affirmed Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, a term
that includes a belief in the corporeal presence, the sacramental
union, as well as several other eucharistic theologies.
Elizabeth I, as part of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, gave
royal assent to the
Thirty-Nine Articles
Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, which sought to
distinguish Anglican from Roman Church doctrine. The Articles declared
that "
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of Bread and
Wine) in the Supper of the Lord, cannot be proved by holy Writ; but is
repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of
a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions." The
Elizabethan Settlement accepted the Real Presence of Christ in the
Sacrament, but refused to define it, preferring to leave it a mystery.
Indeed, for many years it was illegal in Britain to hold public office
whilst believing in transubstantiation, as under the
Test Act
.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_England_(1660-1689).svg.png)
Test Act of 1673.
Archbishop
John Tillotson
John Tillotson decried the "real barbarousness of this
Sacrament
Sacrament and Rite of our Religion", considering it a great impiety to
believe that people who attend
Holy Communion
Holy Communion "verily eat and drink
the natural flesh and blood of Christ. And what can any man do more
unworthily towards a Friend? How can he possibly use him more
barbarously, than to feast upon his living flesh and blood?"
(Discourse against Transubstantiation, London 1684, 35). In the Church
of England today, clergy are required to assent that the 39 Articles
have borne witness to the Christian faith.[59]
Anglicans generally consider no teaching binding that, according to
the Articles, "cannot be found in Holy Scripture or proved thereby",
and are not unanimous in the interpretation of such passages as John,
Chapter 6, and 1 Corinthians 11, although all Anglicans affirm a view
of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist: some Anglicans
(especially
Anglo-Catholics
Anglo-Catholics and some other
High Church
High Church Anglicans) hold
to a belief in the corporeal presence while Evangelical Anglicans hold
to a belief in the pneumatic presence. As with all Anglicans,
Anglo-Catholics
Anglo-Catholics and other
High Church
High Church Anglicans historically held
belief in the real presence of Christ in the
Eucharist
Eucharist but were
"hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation".[60][61]
However, in the first half of the twentieth century, the Catholic
Propaganda Society upheld both Article XXVIII and the doctrine of
transubstantiation, stating that the 39 Articles specifically condemn
a pre-
Council of Trent
Council of Trent "interpretation which was included by some
under the term Transubstantiation" in which "the bread and wine were
only left as a delusion of the senses after consecration";[62] it
stated that "this Council propounded its definition after the Articles
were written, and so cannot be referred to by them".[62]
Theological dialogue with the
Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church has produced
common documents that speak of "substantial agreement" about the
doctrine of the Eucharist: the ARCIC Windsor Statement of 1971,[63]
and its 1979 Elucidation.[64] Remaining arguments can be found in the
Church of England's pastoral letter: The Eucharist:
Sacrament
Sacrament of
Unity.[65]
Lutheranism[edit]
Lutherans explicitly reject transubstantiation[66] believing that the
bread and wine remain fully bread and fully wine while also being
truly the body and blood of
Jesus
Jesus Christ.[67][68][69][70] Lutheran
churches instead emphasize the sacramental union[71] (not exactly the
consubstantiation, as is often claimed)[72] and believe that within
the Eucharistic celebration the body and blood of
Jesus
Jesus Christ are
objectively present "in, with, and under the forms" of bread and wine
(cf. Book of Concord).[67] They place great stress on Jesus'
instructions to "take and eat", and "take and drink", holding that
this is the proper, divinely ordained use of the sacrament, and, while
giving it due reverence, scrupulously avoid any actions that might
indicate or lead to superstition or unworthy fear of the
sacrament.[68]
Reformed churches[edit]
Classical
Presbyterianism
Presbyterianism held Calvin's view of "pneumatic presence"
or "spiritual feeding", a real presence by the Spirit for those who
have faith.
John Calvin
John Calvin "can be regarded as occupying a position
roughly midway between" the doctrines of
Martin Luther
Martin Luther on one hand and
Huldrych Zwingli
Huldrych Zwingli on the other. He taught that "the thing that is
signified is effected by its sign", declaring: "Believers ought always
to live by this rule: whenever they see symbols appointed by the Lord,
to think and be convinced that the truth of the thing signified is
surely present there. For why should the Lord put in your hand the
symbol of his body, unless it was to assure you that you really
participate in it? And if it is true that a visible sign is given to
us to seal the gift of an invisible thing, when we have received the
symbol of the body, let us rest assured that the body itself is also
given to us."[73] He quoted
Augustine
Augustine in his harmony of the Synoptic
Gospels on Mark 14:22-25, "Judas ate bread with the Lord, but did not
eat the Lord with the bread."[citation needed]
The Westminster Shorter Catechism summarises the teaching:
Q. What is the Lord's supper?
A. The Lord's supper is a sacrament, wherein, by giving and receiving
bread and wine according to Christ's appointment, his death is showed
forth; and the worthy receivers are, not after a corporal and carnal
manner, but by faith, made partakers of his body and blood, with all
his benefits, to their spiritual nourishment and growth in grace.[74]
Methodism[edit]
Methodists
Methodists believe in the real presence of Christ in the bread and
wine (or grape juice) while, like Anglicans and Lutherans, rejecting
transubstantiation. According to the United Methodist Church, "Jesus
Christ, who 'is the reflection of God's glory and the exact imprint of
God's very being' (Hebrews 1:3), is truly present in Holy
Communion."[75]
While upholding the view that scripture is the primary source of
Church practice,
Methodists
Methodists also look to church tradition and base
their beliefs on the early Church teachings on the Eucharist, that
Christ has a real presence in the Lord's Supper. The Catechism for the
use of the people called
Methodists
Methodists thus states that, "[in Holy
Communion]
Jesus
Jesus Christ is present with his worshipping people and
gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour".[76]
See also[edit]
Eucharistic miracle
Host desecration
Memorialism
Mysterium fidei (encyclical)
New Covenant
Nominalism
Transignification
References[edit]
Notes
^ Fay, William (2001). "The Real Presence of
Jesus
Jesus Christ in the
Sacrament
Sacrament of the Eucharist: Basic Questions and Answers". United
States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved 13 December 2015. the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church professes that, in the celebration of the Eucharist,
bread and wine become the Body and Blood of
Jesus
Jesus Christ through the
power of the Holy Ghost and the instrumentality of the priest.
^ The Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215, canon 1
^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Lateran Council"
^ Hillebrand, Hans J. (2005). "
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation - Oxford Reference".
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-506493-3. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
^ "Article 3 The
Sacrament
Sacrament of the Eucharist". Catechism of the
Catholic Church. Holy See.
^ Paul F. Bradshaw, Maxwell E. Johnson, The Eucharistic Liturgies:
Their Evolution and Interpretation (Liturgical Press 2012
ISBN 978-0-81466240-3), p. 323. Francis Marsden, "Pope John Paul
II's new Document on the Eucharist" (2003). "The Catholic Mass expects
God to work a transformation, a change of the elements of bread and
wine into the very presence of Christ. The Anglican prayers do not
demand this objective change in the elements: they ask merely that the
bread and wine should now take on new significance for us, as symbols
of His Body and Blood. In fact, the Anglican formulae will bear
interpretation either way. This is a deliberate policy, and part of
the genius of Anglicanism, its ability to accommodate contradictory
doctrines under the same outward form of words."
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Early Symbols of the Eucharist". Retrieved
2017-05-31.
^ a b "CHURCH FATHERS: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans".
www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 2017-11-12.
^ a b "CHURCH FATHERS: On the Mysteries (St. Ambrose)".
www.newadvent.org.
^ "The Didache". www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved
2017-11-12.
^ "Ignatius to the Romans". www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved
2017-11-12.
^ "
Saint
Saint Justin Martyr: First Apology (Roberts-Donaldson)".
www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 2017-11-12.
^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, LXX
^ Tertullian, Against Marcion, IV, 40
^ "ANF07. Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries: Lactantius,
Venantius, Asterius, Victorinus, Dionysius, Apostolic Teaching and
Constitutions,
Homily - Christian Classics Ethereal Library".
www.ccel.org.
^ Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat. Myst., 5, 7 (Patrologia Graeca 33:1113):
μεταβολή
^ Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio catechetica magna, 37 (PG 45:93):
μεταστοιχειώσας
^ John Chrysostom,
Homily 1 on the betrayal of Judas, 6 (PG 49:380):
μεταρρύθμησις
^ Cyril of Alexandria, On Luke, 22, 19 (PG 72:911): μετίτησις
^ John Damascene, On the orthodox faith, book 4, chapter 13 (PG
49:380): μεταποίησις
^ Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, book 4, ch 21, quoting Cyprian.
^ a b c Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University
Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Transubstantiation
^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press
2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Berengar of Tours
^ John Cuthbert Hedley, Holy
Eucharist
Eucharist (1907), p. 37. John N. King,
Milton and Religious Controversy (Cambridge University Press 2000
ISBN 978-0-52177198-6), p. 134
^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Fourth Lateran Council
(1215)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton. . of
Faith Fourth Lateran Council: 1215, 1. Confession of Faith, retrieved
2010-03-13.
^ Luther, M. The Babylonian Captivity of the Christian Church. 1520.
Quoted in, McGrath, A. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to
the History of Christian Thought. Blackwell Publishers: Oxford. p.
198.
^ McGrath, op.cit. pp. 198-99
^ McGrath, op.cit., p197.
^ "A Prelude by
Martin Luther
Martin Luther on the Babylonian Captivity of the
Church, 2:26 & 2:27".
^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299-300.
^ 1 Corinthians 11:23-26
^ Thirty-Nine Articles, article 28
^ "The Literature of Persecution and Intolerance - FindLaw".
Findlaw.
^ a b c J. Waterworth (ed.). "The
Council of Trent
Council of Trent - The Thirteenth
Session". Scanned by Hanover College students in 1995 (1848 ed.).
London: Dolman.
^ "Transubstantiation". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Charles Davis: The Theology of
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation in Sophia, Vol. 3,
No. 1 / April 1964
^ Adams, Italian Renaissance Art, p. 345f.
^ Edward McNamara, "On Transubstantiation" in ZENIT, 19 April 2016
^ Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the
Development of Doctrine, Volume 1: The Emergence of the Catholic
Tradition (100-600) (University of Chicago Press 1975), p. 44
^ Paul Haffner, The Sacramental Mystery (Gracewing Publishing 1999
ISBN 978-0-85244476-4), p. 92
^ Maisie Ward and F. J. Sheed, Catholic Evidence Training Outlines
(Sheed & Ward, third edition 1935), p. 240.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1376
^ a b c "V. The Sacramental Sacrifice Thanksgiving, Memorial,
Presence". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Libreria Editrice
Vaticana.
^ Dulles, Avery. "Christ's Presence in the Eucharist: True, Real and
Substantial". https://adoremus.org/. External link in website=
(help)
^ Kappes, Christiaan. "The
Epiclesis
Epiclesis Debate:
Mark of Ephesus
Mark of Ephesus and John
Torquemada, OP, at the
Council of Florence
Council of Florence 1439 (University of Notre
Dame Press) at press 2017".
^ "
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText".
www.vatican.va.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1356-1381, number 1377, Cf.
Council of Trent: DS 1641: "Nor should it be forgotten that Christ,
whole and entire, is contained not only under either species, but also
in each particle of either species. Each, says St. Augustine, receives
Christ the Lord, and He is entire in each portion. He is not
diminished by being given to many, but gives Himself whole and entire
to each." (Quoted in Gratian, p. 3, dist. ii. c. 77; Ambrosian Mass,
Preface for Fifth Sunday after Epiph.) —The Catechism of the Council
of Trent for Parish Priests, issued by order of Pope Pius V,
translated into English with Notes by John A. McHugh, O.P., S.T.M.,
Litt. D., and Charles J. Callan, O.P., S.T.M., Litt. D., (1982) TAN
Books and Publishers, Inc., Rockford, Ill.
ISBN 978-0-89555-185-6. p. 249 "Christ Whole and Entire Present
in Every Part of Each Species".
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1333-1344, numbers 1333-1336 under
the heading "III. The
Eucharist
Eucharist in the Economy of Salvation The signs
of bread and wine".
^ "
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText".
www.vatican.va.
^ Boylan, Dom Eugene, This Tremendous Lover, Christian Classics,
Westminster, Maryland, 1989, pp. 159-170
^ The
Eucharist
Eucharist and Its Effects—The Real Presence of Christ in the
Eucharist, James H. Dobbins (if site says "404 Error: page not found",
enter the article title in the site's Search window). Copyright ©
2000-2012 by therealpresence.org, Real Presence Eucharistic Education
and Adoration Association, 718 Liberty Lane, Lombard, IL 60148, Phone:
815-254-4420
^ Thomas Aqunas, Summa Theologica, III, Question 76
^ Douglas, Brian (3 September 2015). The Eucharistic Theology of
Edward Bouverie Pusey: Sources, Context and Doctrine within the Oxford
Movement and Beyond. BRILL. p. 139.
ISBN 9789004304598. access-date= requires url= (help)
^ "Epiklesis". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
^ "Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical notes. Volume I.
The History of Creeds. - Christian Classics Ethereal Library".
www.ccel.org.
^ "The Holy Orthodox Church at the
Synod of Jerusalem
Synod of Jerusalem (date 1643 A.D.)
used the word metousiosis--a change of ousia--to translate the Latin
Transubstantiatio" (
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation and the Black Rubric).
^ Confession of Dositheus (emphasis added) The Greek text is quoted in
an online extract from the 1915 book "Μελέται περί των
Θείων Μυστηρίων" (Studies on the Divine
Mysteries/Sacraments) by
Saint
Saint Nektarios.
^ [Catherine Roth, St. Theodore the Studite, On the Holy Icons,
Crestwood 1981, 30.]
^ "Common Worship". www.cofe.anglican.org.
^ Poulson, Christine (1999). The Quest for the Grail: Arthurian Legend
in British Art, 1840-1920. Manchester University Press. p. 40.
ISBN 9780719055379. By the late 1840s Anglo-Catholic interest in
the revival of ritual had given new life to doctrinal debate over the
nature of the Eucharist. Initially, 'the Tractarians were concerned
only to exalt the importance of the sacrament and did not engage in
doctrinal speculation'. Indeed they were generally hostile to the
doctrine of transubstantiation. For an orthodox Anglo-Catholic such as
Dyce the doctrine of the Real Presence was acceptable, but that of
transubstantiation was not.
^ Spurr, Barry (3 April 2010). Anglo-Catholic in Religion. Lutterworth
Press. p. 100. ISBN 0718830733. The doctrine had been
affirmed by Anglican theologians, through the ages, including Lancelot
Andrewes, Jeremy Taylor (who taught the doctrine of the Real Presence
at the eucharist, but attacked Roman transubstantiation), William Laud
and John Cosin - all in the seventeenth century - as well as in the
nineteenth century Tractarians and their successors.
^ a b "
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation and the Black Rubric".
anglicanhistory.org.
^ "Pro Unione Web Site - Full Text ARCIC Eucharist".
www.prounione.urbe.it.
^ "Pro Unione Web Site - Full Text ARCIC Elucidation Eucharist".
www.prounione.urbe.it.
^ "Council for Christian Unity" (PDF). www.cofe.anglican.org.
^ Luther, Martin (1537), Smalcald Articles, Part III, Article VI. Of
the
Sacrament
Sacrament of the Altar, stating: "As regards transubstantiation,
we care nothing about the sophistical subtlety by which they teach
that bread and wine leave or lose their own natural substance, and
that there remain only the appearance and color of bread, and not true
bread. For it is in perfect agreement with Holy Scriptures that there
is, and remains, bread, as Paul himself calls it, 1 Cor. 10:16: The
bread which we break. And 1 Cor. 11:28: Let him so eat of that bread."
^ a b Brug, J.F. (1998), The Real Presence of Christ’s Body and
Blood in The Lord’s Supper:: Contemporary Issues Concerning the
Sacramental Union Archived 2015-02-04 at the Wayback Machine., pp2-4
^ a b Schuetze, A.W. (1986), Basic Doctrines of the Bible (Milwaukee:
Northwestern Publishing House), Chapter 12, Article 3
^ "Real Presence: What is really the difference between
"transubstantiation" and "consubstantiation"?". WELS Topical Q&A.
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 28
September 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2016. We reject transubstantiation
because the Bible teaches that the bread and the wine are still
present in the Lord's Supper (1 Corinthians 10:16, 1 Corinthians
11:27-28). We do not worship the elements because
Jesus
Jesus commands us to
eat and to drink the bread and the wine. He does not command us to
worship them. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ "Real Presence: Why not Transubstantiation?". WELS Topical Q&A.
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 28
September 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2016. CS1 maint: BOT:
original-url status unknown (link)
^ VII. The Lord's Supper: Affirmative Theses, Epitome of the Formula
of Concord, 1577, stating that: "We believe, teach, and confess that
the body and blood of Christ are received with the bread and wine, not
only spiritually by faith, but also orally; yet not in a Capernaitic,
but in a supernatural, heavenly mode, because of the sacramental
union"
^ "Real Presence Communion – Consubstantiation?". WELS Topical
Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the
original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2016. Although some
Lutherans have used the term 'consbstantiation' [sic] and it might
possibly be understood correctly (e.g., the bread & wine, body
& blood coexist with each other in the Lord's Supper), most
Lutherans reject the term because of the false connotation it
contains...either that the body and blood, bread and wine come
together to form one substance in the Lord’s Supper or that the body
and blood are present in a natural manner like the bread and the wine.
Lutherans believe that the bread and the wine are present in a natural
manner in the Lord’s Supper and Christ’s true body and blood are
present in an illocal, supernatural manner.
^ McGrath, op.cit., p.199.
^ Westminster Shorter Catechism, Q&A 96
^ "This Holy Mystery: Part Two". The
United Methodist Church
United Methodist Church GBOD.
Archived from the original on July 7, 2009. Retrieved 30 May
2013.
^ A Catechism for the use of people called Methodists. Peterborough,
England: Methodist Publishing House. 2000. p. 26.
ISBN 9781858521824.
Bibliography
Burckhardt Neunheuser, "Transsubstantiation." Lexikon für Theologie
und Kirche, vol. 10, cols. 311-14.
Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: The
Eucharist
Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture
(1991), pp. 369–419.
Otto Semmelroth, Eucharistische Wandlung: Transsubstantation,
Transfinalisation, Transsignifikation (Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker,
1967).
Richard J. Utz and Christine Batz, "
Transubstantiation
Transubstantiation in Medieval and
Early Modern Culture and Literature: An Introductory Bibliography of
Critical Studies," in: Translation, Transformation, and
Transubstantiation, ed. Carol Poster and Richard Utz (Evanston: IL:
Northwestern University Press, 1998), pp. 223–56."
External links[edit]
"Transubstantiation" in Catholic Encyclopedia
Pope Paul VI: Encyclical Mysterium fidei
Pope Paul VI:
Credo
Credo of the People of God
Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox Church statements on transubstantiation/metousiosis
The Antiquity of the Doctrine of Transubstantiation
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