Tonton Macoute
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Tonton Macoute ( ht, Tonton Makout) or simply the Macoute was a
special operations Special operations (S.O.) are military activities conducted, according to NATO, by "specially designated, organized, selected, trained, and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment". Special operations may include ...
unit within the
Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
an
paramilitary A paramilitary is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carr ...
force created in 1959 by dictator
François "Papa Doc" Duvalier François () is a French masculine given name and surname, equivalent to the English name Francis. People with the given name * Francis I of France, King of France (), known as "the Father and Restorer of Letters" * Francis II of France, King o ...
. In 1970 the militia was renamed the ' (VSN, Volunteers of the National Security). Haitians named this force after the Haitian mythological
bogeyman The Bogeyman (; also spelled boogeyman, bogyman, bogieman, boogie monster, boogieman, or boogie woogie) is a type of mythic creature used by adults to frighten children into good behavior. Bogeymen have no specific appearance and conceptions var ...
, (" Uncle Gunnysack"), who kidnaps and punishes unruly children by snaring them in a
gunny sack A burlap sack or gunny sack, also known as a gunny shoe, hessian sack or tow sack, is an inexpensive bag, traditionally made of fibres which are also known as "tow," such as hessian fabric (burlap) formed from jute, hemp or other natural fibre ...
() before carrying them off to be consumed for breakfast.


History

After the July 1958 Haitian coup d'état attempt against President
François Duvalier François Duvalier (; 14 April 190721 April 1971), also known as Papa Doc, was a Haitian politician of French Martiniquan descent who served as the President of Haiti from 1957 to 1971. He was elected president in the 1957 general election on ...
, he purged the army and law enforcement agencies in Haiti and executed numerous officers as he perceived them as a threat to his regime. To counteract this threat, he created a military force that bore several names. In 1959, his paramilitary force was called the ("Hooded Men"). They were then renamed to (''Civilian Militia''), and after 1962, (''Volunteers of the National Security'', or VSN). They began to be called the when people started to disappear for no apparent reason. This group answered to him only. Duvalier authorized the to commit systematic violence and
human rights Human rights are Morality, moral principles or Social norm, normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for ce ...
abuses to suppress political opposition. They were responsible for unknown numbers of murders and rapes in Haiti. Political opponents often disappeared overnight, or were sometimes attacked in broad daylight. stoned and burned people alive. Many times they put the corpses of their victims on display, often hung in trees for everyone to see and take as warnings against opposition. Family members who tried to remove the bodies for proper burial often disappeared. Anyone who challenged the VSN risked assassination. Their unrestrained
state terrorism State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism which a state conducts against another state or against its own citizens.Martin, 2006: p. 111. Definition There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper def ...
was accompanied by corruption, extortion and personal aggrandizement among the leadership. The victims of could range from a woman in the poorest of neighborhoods who had previously supported an opposing politician to a businessman who refused to comply with extortion threats (ostensibly as donations for public works, but which were in fact the source of profit for corrupt officials and even President Duvalier). The murdered between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians.
Luckner Cambronne Luckner Cambronne (30 October 193024 September 2006) was a high-ranking political figure in François Duvalier's regime in Haiti. Cambronne was born the son of a poor preacher and had a career as a bank teller. His alliance with Françoi ...
led the throughout the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. His cruelty earned him the nickname "Vampire of the Caribbean". This particular name was earned by one of his endeavors of extorting
blood plasma Blood plasma is a light amber-colored liquid component of blood in which blood cells are absent, but contains proteins and other constituents of whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume. It is the intra ...
from locals for sale. Cambronne did this through his company "Hemocaribian" and shipped five tons of plasma per month to US Labs. He would also go on to sell cadavers to medical schools after buying them from Haitian hospitals for $3 per corpse. When the Hospital could not supply this, the local funeral homes would be used. In 1971, President Duvalier died and his widow Simone, and son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier ordered Cambronne into exile. Cambronne moved to
Miami Miami ( ), officially the City of Miami, known as "the 305", "The Magic City", and "Gateway to the Americas", is a East Coast of the United States, coastal metropolis and the County seat, county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade C ...
,
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, US, where he lived until his death in 2006. When François Duvalier came to power in 1957, Vodou was becoming celebrated for its purely Haitian heritage by intellectuals and the
griots A griot (; ; Manding: jali or jeli (in N'Ko: , ''djeli'' or ''djéli'' in French spelling); Serer: kevel or kewel / okawul; Wolof: gewel) is a West African historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, and/or musician. The griot is a repos ...
after having been let go for years by those with education.Filan, Kenaz (2007). "1.2. The Roots of Haitian Vodou". The Haitian Vodou Handbook: Protocols for Riding with the Lwa. Rochester, Vermont: Destiny Books. p. 21. . . . . The was heavily influenced by Vodou tradition with denim uniforms resembling clothing like
Azaka Medeh Azaka (Kouzin or Couzen) is the loa of the harvest in Haitian Vodou mythology Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely ...
, the patron of farmers, and the use of the machete in symbolic reference to
Ogun Ogun or Ogoun (Yoruba: Ògún, Portuguese: Ogum, Gu; also spelled Oggun or Ogou; known as Ogún or Ogum in Latin America) is a spirit that appears in several African religions. He attempted to seize the throne after the demise of Obatala, who re ...
, a great general in Vodou tradition. Some of the most important members of the were Vodou leaders. This religious affiliation gave the a kind of unearthly authority in the eyes of the public. From their methods to their choice of clothes, Vodou always played an important role in their actions. The wore straw hats, blue
denim Denim is a sturdy cotton warp-faced textile in which the weft passes under two or more warp threads. This twill weaving produces a diagonal ribbing that distinguishes it from cotton duck. While a denim predecessor known as dungaree has been pr ...
shirts and dark glasses, and were armed with
machete Older machete from Latin America Gerber machete/saw combo Agustín Cruz Tinoco of San Agustín de las Juntas, Oaxaca">San_Agustín_de_las_Juntas.html" ;"title="Agustín Cruz Tinoco of San Agustín de las Juntas">Agustín Cruz Tinoco of San ...
s and guns. Both their allusions to the supernatural and their physical presentations were used with the intention of instilling fear and respect. Even their title of Tonton Macoute was embedded in Haitian lore of a bogeyman who took children away in his satchel or his Makoute. The were a ubiquitous presence at the polls in the 1961 presidential referendum, in which Duvalier's official vote count was an "outrageous" and fraudulent , electing him to another term. They appeared in force again at polls in 1964, when Duvalier held a constitutional referendum that declared him president for life.


Legacy

In 1985 the United States began to shut down funds to Haitian aid, cutting nearly a million dollars from it within a year. Nonetheless the regime pushed forward and even had a national party for the . day was 29 July 1985, and amongst festivities the group was bestowed new uniforms and was honored by all of Baby Doc's cabinet. In exuberance of celebration the went out into the streets and shot 27 people for the national party. The lack of funds coming to the was a result of those funds being intercepted by the
Duvalier dynasty The Duvalier dynasty (french: Dynastie des Duvalier, ht, Dinasti Duvalier) was an autocratic family dictatorship in Haiti that lasted almost twenty-nine years, from 1957 until 1986, spanning the rule of the father-and-son duo François and Jean- ...
which was sometimes taking nearly 80 percent of international aid to Haiti, then turning around to pay only 45 percent of the debts the country owed. This continued until the was left on its own when Baby Doc fled the country with an estimated $900m. The remained active even after the presidency of "Papa Doc" Duvalier's son "Baby Doc" ended in 1986, at the height of the
Anti-Duvalier protest movement The Anti-Duvalier protest movement was a series of demonstrations in Haiti from 23 May 1984 – 7 February 1986 that led to the overthrow of President Jean-Claude Duvalier and the Duvalier dynasty regime and the readoption of the original flag ...
. Massacres led by paramilitary groups spawned from the continued during the following decade. The most feared paramilitary group during the 1990s was the
Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti The Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haiti (FRAPH) (french: Front pour l'Avancement et le Progrès Haitien) was a far-right paramilitary group organized in mid-1993. Its goal was to undermine support for the popular Catholicism, Catholic p ...
(FRAPH), which ''
Toronto Star The ''Toronto Star'' is a Canadian English-language broadsheet daily newspaper. The newspaper is the country's largest daily newspaper by circulation. It is owned by Toronto Star Newspapers Limited, a subsidiary of Torstar Corporation and part ...
'' journalist Linda Diebel described as modern , and not the legitimate political party it claimed to be. Led by Emmanual Constant, FRAPH differed from the in its denial to submit to the will of a single authority and its cooperation with regular military forces. FRAPH extended its reach far outside that of the Haitian state and had offices present in
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States New York may also refer to: Film and television * '' ...
,
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
and
Miami Miami ( ), officially the City of Miami, known as "the 305", "The Magic City", and "Gateway to the Americas", is a East Coast of the United States, coastal metropolis and the County seat, county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade C ...
until its disarmament and disbandment in 1994.


Representation in other media

* '' The Comedians'' (1966) is a novel by Graham Greene about the struggle of a former hotel owner against the . It was adapted into a
feature film A feature film or feature-length film is a narrative film (motion picture or "movie") with a running time long enough to be considered the principal or sole presentation in a commercial entertainment program. The term ''feature film'' originall ...
starring
Richard Burton Richard Burton (; born Richard Walter Jenkins Jr.; 10 November 1925 – 5 August 1984) was a Welsh actor. Noted for his baritone voice, Burton established himself as a formidable Shakespearean actor in the 1950s, and he gave a memorable pe ...
,
Elizabeth Taylor Dame Elizabeth Rosemond Taylor (February 27, 1932 – March 23, 2011) was a British-American actress. She began her career as a child actress in the early 1940s and was one of the most popular stars of classical Hollywood cinema in the 1950s. ...
,
Peter Ustinov Sir Peter Alexander Ustinov (born Peter Alexander Freiherr von Ustinov ; 16 April 192128 March 2004) was a British actor, filmmaker and writer. An internationally known raconteur, he was a fixture on television talk shows and lecture circuits ...
and
Alec Guinness Sir Alec Guinness (born Alec Guinness de Cuffe; 2 April 1914 – 5 August 2000) was an English actor. After an early career on the stage, Guinness was featured in several of the Ealing comedies, including ''Kind Hearts and Coronets'' (194 ...
. *''
Ton-Ton Macoute! ''Ton-Ton Macoute!'' is the 1970 debut solo album of American blues musician Johnny Jenkins. Jenkins had previously led The Pinetoppers, a band which at one time featured Otis Redding. Jenkins then appeared on two Redding albums, playing guitar ...
'', a 1970 album by
Johnny Jenkins Johnny Edward Jenkins (March 5, 1939 – June 26, 2006) was an American left-handed blues guitarist, who helped launch the career of Otis Redding. His flamboyant style of guitar playing also influenced Jimi Hendrix. Career In the 1960s Je ...
. *" Heaven Knows," a song by
Robert Plant Robert Anthony Plant (born 20 August 1948) is an English singer and songwriter, best known as the lead singer and lyricist of the English rock band Led Zeppelin for all of its existence from 1968 until 1980, when the band broke up following the ...
on his album ''
Now and Zen ''Now and Zen'' is the fourth solo album by Robert Plant, released 29 February 1988 by Es Paranza Records, Plant's own label. The album made the top 10 in the US (No. 6) and UK (No. 10). It was certified triple platinum by the RIAA on 7 Septe ...
'', references the . *'' The Serpent and the Rainbow'' (1988), a horror film directed by
Wes Craven Wesley Earl Craven (August 2, 1939 – August 30, 2015) was an American film director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and editor. Craven has commonly been recognized as one of the greatest masters of the horror genre due to the cultural imp ...
, loosely based on the book of the same name, deals with
Haitian Vodou Haitian Vodou is an African diasporic religion that developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of syncretism between several traditional religions of West and Central Africa and Roman Catholicism. There is ...
and Duvalierist political repression. * '' The Dew Breaker'' (2004) is a novel by
Edwidge Danticat Edwidge Danticat (; born January 19, 1969) is a Haitian-American novelist and short story writer. Her first novel, ''Breath, Eyes, Memory'', was published in 1994 and went on to become an Oprah's Book Club selection. Danticat has since written or ...
that features the as important in the plot. * Prior to her solo career,
Sinéad O'Connor Shuhada Sadaqat (born Sinéad Marie Bernadette O'Connor on 8 December 1966; ) is an Irish singer-songwriter. Her debut album, ''The Lion and the Cobra'', was released in 1987 and charted internationally. Her second album, ''I Do Not Want What ...
sang in a band called Macoute. * The Tonton Macoute is also mentioned in
season 1 Season One may refer to: Albums * ''Season One'' (Suburban Legends album), 2004 * ''Season One'' (All Sons & Daughters album), 2012 * ''Season One'' (Saukrates album), 2012 See also * * * Season 2 (disambiguation) * Season 4 (disambiguat ...
,
episode 9 Episode 9 may refer to: * '' Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker'' also known as ''Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker'', a 2019 film * "Episode 9" (''Twin Peaks''), a 1990 episode of the TV series ''Twin Peaks'' See also * Episode (dis ...
of the television series ''
Dexter Dexter may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Dexter, the main character of the American animated series ''Dexter's Laboratory'' that aired from 1996 to 2003 * Dexter, a fictional character in the British Diary of a Bad Man#Main, web series ''Diar ...
''. In the episode, an ex-Cagoulard is recognized and killed by Miami-Dade police sergeant
James Doakes James Doakes is a fictional character in the '' Dexter'' television series and the novels by Jeff Lindsay. In the TV series, he is portrayed by Erik King. He is a detective sergeant and police officer. Biography Doakes enlisted in the U.S. Arm ...
, who was formerly stationed in Haiti as an Army Ranger. *
Don Byron Donald Byron (born November 8, 1958) is an American composer and multi-instrumentalist. He primarily plays clarinet but has also played bass clarinet and saxophone in a variety of genres that includes free jazz and klezmer. Biography His mother w ...
mentions the Tonton Macoute while describing Haitian immigrant Abner Louima's brutal interrogation by the NYC Police in his song "
Morning 98 (Blinky) Morning is the period from sunrise to noon. There are no exact times for when morning begins (also true of evening and night) because it can vary according to one's lifestyle and the hours of daylight at each time of year. However, morning stric ...
" from the 1998 album ''
Nu Blaxploitation ''Nu Blaxploitation'' is an album by the American musician Don Byron, released in 1988. Byron is credited with his band Existential Dred. Byron supported the album with a North American tour. Production The album was recorded in December 1997 and ...
''. * The track "Tonton Macoutes" appears on the 1987 album ''Coup d'État'' by
Muslimgauze Muslimgauze was the main musical project of Bryn Jones (17 June 1961 – 14 January 1999), a British ethnic electronica and experimental musician who was influenced by conflicts and history in the Muslim world, often with an emphasis on the Isra ...
. * In the 2016 video game ''
Mafia III ''Mafia III'' is a 2016 action-adventure video game developed by Hangar 13 and published by 2K Games. It was released in October 2016 for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One, in May 2017 for macOS, and in October 2021 for Google Stadia. It is ...
'', the New Bordeux Haitian Mob is composed mainly of refugees who fled Haiti to escape from persecution by the Tonton Macoute. * In the television series ''The Thick of It'', the character Malcolm Tucker jokes in response to why he enters a room without knocking that it is due to his "time with the Haitian death squads". * In ''NSV'', the character Nasalis states that in 1974 he felt sympathetic towards the Haitian national football team, not being aware of
Jean-Claude Duvalier Jean-Claude Duvalier (; 3 July 19514 October 2014), nicknamed "Baby Doc" ( ht, Bebe Dòk), was a Haitian politician who was the President of Haiti from 1971 until he was overthrown by a popular uprising in February 1986. He succeeded his father F ...
at the time. The character Erik replied that nonetheless the Tonton Macoute was already keeping an eye on him even then. * In Toni Morisson's essay,
The Habit of Art
, Morisson refers to the tragic practice of the Tonton Macoute targeting people who attempted to bury people that were murdered. *
Shrunken Heads (film) ''Shrunken Heads'' is a 1994 American independent comedy horror film directed by Richard Elfman and written by Matthew Bright. The film follows three preteen boys who, after being murdered by a vicious gang, are resurrected via voodoo as shrunken ...
, features the character Aristide Sumatra, a voodoo priest and former member of the Tonton Macoute, who uses his Tonton Macoute experience to train three shrunken heads in combat to fight criminals. *In author Shannon Mayer’s Forty-Proof series, the 4th installment (titled Midlife Ghost Hunter) uses a voodoo zombie army called the Tonton Macoutes as the main villain’s army. The story takes place in New Orleans. *In the TV Series JUSTIFIED Season 5 Episode 01 "A Murder of Crow's" the Tonton Macoute is mentioned by the lead character of the series, Raylan played by actor Timothy Olyphant, while questioning a Haitian suspect that by his appearance & attitude is portrayed to be a likely former member of the group. Raylan mis speaks the name (sarcastically) as Tom Tom Macoo as a means to insult or attempt to agitate the Haitian character. *In the TV series "Two and a Half Men", Season 3 Episode 17: "The Unfortunate Little Schnauzer", Archie Baldwin makes a reference to Tonton Macoute in his UN jingle for orphaned children. *Dexter (television series) Season 1 Episode 9 (Father Knows Best) references Tonton Macoute, also referring to them as"The Boogymen". In the episode, Doakes has an altercation with Jacques Bayard, a past member of Tonton Macoute. LaGeurta and Doakes speak about the atrocities committed by Tonton Macoute. * Roxane Gay's short story "''A Cool, Dry Place''" (in ''ayiti'') features characters who recall losing their parents to the Tonton Macoute.


See also

*
Militia A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...
*
Paramilitary A paramilitary is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carr ...
*
Police state A police state describes a state where its government institutions exercise an extreme level of control over civil society and liberties. There is typically little or no distinction between the law and the exercise of political power by the exe ...
*
Political color Political colours are colours used to represent a political ideology, movement or party, either officially or unofficially. It is the intersection of colour symbolism and political symbolism. Parties in different countries with similar ideolo ...
*
Political uniform A number of political movements have involved their members wearing uniforms, typically as a way of showing their identity in marching, marches and demonstration (people), demonstrations. The wearing of political uniforms has tended to be associa ...
*
Mongoose Gang The Mongoose Gang was a private army or militia which operated from 1967 to 1979 under the control of Sir Eric Gairy, the Premier and later Prime Minister of Grenada, and head of the Grenada United Labour Party. Officially, Mongoose Gang members wer ...
*
Secret police Secret police (or political police) are intelligence, security or police agencies that engage in covert operations against a government's political, religious, or social opponents and dissidents. Secret police organizations are characteristic of a ...
*
Shower Posse The Shower Posse is a Jamaican gang, started by Lester Lloyd Coke, which is involved with drug and arms smuggling. Its home is in Tivoli Gardens in Jamaica, but it primarily operates in the Canadian province of Ontario and the US states of New ...


References


External links

* * {{Authority control 1959 establishments in Haiti Paramilitary organizations based in Haiti Defunct law enforcement agencies of Haiti Military wings of nationalist parties Government paramilitary forces Secret police Haitian intelligence agencies