Tirukkuṛaḷ

The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue (''aram''), wealth (''porul'') and love (''inbam''), respectively. Considered one of the greatest works ever written on ethics and morality, it is known for its universality and secular nature. Its authorship is traditionally attributed to Valluvar, also known in full as Thiruvalluvar. The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. The traditional accounts describe it as the last work of the third Sangam, but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period.

The Kural text is among the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics. The Kural is traditionally praised with epithets and alternative titles, including "the Tamil Veda" and "the Divine Book." Written on the foundations of ''ahimsa'', it emphasizes non-violence and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual. In addition, it highlights truthfulness, self-restraint, gratitude, hospitality, kindness, goodness of wife, duty, giving, and so forth, besides covering a wide range of social and political topics such as king, ministers, taxes, justice, forts, war, greatness of army and soldier's honor, death sentence for the wicked, agriculture, education, abstinence from alcohol and intoxicants. It also includes chapters on friendship, love, sexual unions, and domestic life. The text effectively denounced previously held misbeliefs that were common during the Sangam era and permanently redefined the cultural values of the Tamil land.

The Kural has been widely admired by scholars and influential leaders across the ethical, social, political, economic, religious, philosophical, and spiritual spheres over its history. These include Ilango Adigal, Kambar, Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, Ramalinga Swamigal, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Karl Graul, George Uglow Pope, Alexander Piatigorsky, and Yu Hsi. The work remains the most translated, the most cited, and the most citable of Tamil literary works. The text has been translated into at least 40 Indian and non-Indian languages, making it one of the most translated ancient works. Ever since it came to print for the first time in 1812, the Kural text has never been out of print. The Kural is considered a masterpiece and one of the most important texts of the Tamil Literature. Its author is praised for his innate nature of selecting the best virtues found in the known literature and presenting them in a manner that is common and acceptable to all. The Tamil people and the government of Tamil Nadu have long celebrated and upheld the text with reverence.

Etymology and nomenclature

The term is a compound word made of two individual terms, and . is an honorific Tamil term that corresponds to the universally Indian, Sanskrit term meaning "holy, sacred, excellent, honorable, and beautiful." The term has as many as 19 different meanings in Tamil. means something that is "short, concise, and abridged." Etymologically, is the shortened form of , which is derived from , one of the two Tamil poetic forms explained by the Tolkappiyam, the other one being . According to Miron Winslow, is used as a literary term to indicate "a metrical line of 2 feet, or a distich or couplet of short lines, the first of 4 and the second of 3 feet." Thus, ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' literally comes to mean "sacred couplets."

The work is highly cherished in the Tamil culture, as reflected by its twelve traditional titles: ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' (the sacred kural), ''Uttaravedam'' (the ultimate Veda), ''Tiruvalluvar'' (eponymous with the author), ''Poyyamoli'' (the falseless word), ''Vayurai valttu'' (truthful praise), ''Teyvanul'' (the divine book), ''Potumarai'' (the common Veda), ''Valluva Maalai'' (garland made by the author), ''Tamil Manunool'' (Tamil ethical treatise), ''Tiruvalluva Payan'' (fruit of the author), ''Muppal'' (the three-fold path), and ''Tamilmarai'' (the Tamil Veda). The work is traditionally grouped under the Eighteen Lesser Texts series of the late Sangam works, known in Tamil as ''Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku''.

Date

The Kural has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam, and was subjected to a divine test (which it passed). The scholars who believe this tradition, such as Somasundara Bharathiar and M. Rajamanickam, date the text to as early as 300 BCE. Historian K. K. Pillay assigned it to the early 1st century CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Czech scholar of Tamil literature, these early dates such as 300 BCE to 1 BCE are unacceptable and not supported by evidence within the text. The diction and grammar of the Kural, and Valluvar's indebtedness to some earlier Sanskrit sources, suggest that he lived after the "early Tamil bardic poets," but before Tamil bhakti poets era.

In 1959, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai assigned the work to around or after the 6th century CE. His proposal is based on the evidence that the Kural text contains a large proportion of Sanskrit loan words, shows awareness and indebtedness to some Sanskrit texts best dated to the first half of the 1st millennium CE, and the grammatical innovations in the language of the Kural literature. Pillai published a list of 137 Sanskrit loan words in the Kural text. Later scholars Thomas Burrow and Murray Barnson Emeneau show that 35 of these are of Dravidian origin and not Sanskrit loan words. Zvelebil states that an additional few have uncertain etymology and that future studies may prove those to be Dravidian. The 102 remaining loan words from Sanskrit are "not negligible", and some of the teachings in the Kural text, according to Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the ''Arthashastra'' and ''Manusmriti'' (also called the ''Manavadharmasastra'').

In his treatise of Tamil literary history published in 1974, Zvelebil states that the Kural text does not belong to the Sangam period and dates it to somewhere between 450 and 500 CE. His estimate is based on the language of the text, its allusions to the earlier works, and its borrowing from some Sanskrit treatises. Zvelebil notes that the text features several grammatical innovations that are absent in the older Sangam literature. The text also features a higher number of Sanskrit loan words compared with these older texts. According to Zvelebil, besides being part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition, the author was also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition" as a few of the verses in the Kural text are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses of earlier Indian texts.

In the 19th century and the early 20th century, European writers and missionaries variously dated the text and its author to between 400 and 1000 CE. According to Blackburn, the "current scholarly consensus" dates the text and the author to approximately 500 CE.

In 1921, in the face of incessant debate on the precise date, the Tamil Nadu government officially declared 31 BCE as the year of Valluvar at a conference presided over by Maraimalai Adigal. On 18 January 1935, the Valluvar Year was added to the calendar.

Author

The Kural text was authored by Thiruvalluvar (''lit.'' Saint Valluvar). He is known by various other names including Poyyil Pulavar, Mudharpavalar, Deivappulavar, Nayanar, Devar, Nanmukanar, Mathanubangi, Sennabbodhakar, and Perunavalar. There is negligible authentic information available about Valluvar's life. In fact, neither his actual name nor the original title of his work can be determined with certainty. The Kural text itself does not name its author. The name ''Thiruvalluvar'' was first mentioned in the later era text ''Tiruvalluva Maalai'', a Shaivite Hindu text, also of unclear date. However, the Tiruvalluva Maalai does not mention anything about Valluvar's birth, family, caste or background. No other authentic pre-colonial texts have been found to support any legends about the life of Valluvar. Starting around early 19th century, numerous inconsistent legends on Valluvar in various Indian languages and English were published.

Various claims have been made regarding Valluvar's family background and occupation in the colonial era literature, all inferred from selective sections of his text or hagiographies published since the colonial era started in Tamil Nadu. One traditional version claims that he was a Paraiyar weaver. Another theory is that he must have been from the agricultural caste of Vellalars because he extols agriculture in his work. Another states he was an outcaste, born to a Pariah woman and a Brahmin father. Mu Raghava Iyengar speculated that "valluva" in his name is a variation of "vallabha", the designation of a royal officer. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai derived his name from "valluvan" (a Paraiyar caste of royal drummers) and theorized that he was "the chief of the proclaiming boys analogous to a trumpet-major of an army". The traditional biographies not only are inconsistent, but also contain incredulous claims about the author of the Kural text. Along with various versions of his birth circumstances, many state he went to a mountain and met the legendary Agastya and other sages. There are also accounts claiming that, during his return journey, Valluvar sat under a tree whose shadow sat still over him and did not move the entire day, he killed a demon, and many more. Scholars consider these and all associated aspects of these hagiographic stories to be fiction and ahistorical, a feature common to "international and Indian folklore". The alleged low birth, high birth and being a pariah in the traditional accounts are also doubtful. Traditionally, Valluvar is believed to have married to Vasuki and had a friend and a disciple named Elelasingan.

The Kural text is aphoristic and non-denominational in nature and can be selectively interpreted in many ways. This has led almost every major religious group in India, including Christianity, to claim the work and its author as one of their own. In a manner similar to speculations of the author's biography, there has been much speculation about his religion with no historical evidence. The 19th-century Christian missionary George Uglow Pope, for example, claimed that Valluvar must have lived in the 9th century CE, come in contact with Christian teachers such as Pantaenus of Alexandria, imbibed Christian ideas and peculiarities of Alexandrian teachers and then wrote the "wonderful Kurral" with an "echo of the 'Sermon of the Mount'." This theory is ahistorical and discredited. According to Zvelebil, the ethics and ideas in Valluvar's work are not Christian ethics. Albert Schweitzer hints that "the dating of the Kural has suffered, along with so many other literary and historical dates, philosophies and mythologies of India, a severe mauling at the hands of the Christian Missionaries, anxious to post-date all irrefutable examples of religious maturity to the Christian era."

Valluvar is thought to have belonged to either Jainism or Hinduism. This can be observed in his treatment of the concept of ahimsa or non-violence, which is the principal concept of both the religions. In the 1819 translation, Francis Whyte Ellis mentions that the Tamil community debates whether Valluvar was a Jain or Hindu. According to Zvelebil, Valluvar's treatment of the chapters on moral vegetarianism and non-killing reflects the Jain precepts. Certain epithets for God and ascetic values found in the text are found in Jainism, states Zvelebil. He theorizes that Valluvar was probably "a learned Jain with eclectic leanings", who was well acquainted with the earlier Tamil literature and also had knowledge of the Sanskrit texts. According to A. Chakravarthy Nainar, the Jaina tradition associates the work with Kunda Kunda Acharya, also known as Elachariyar in the Tamil region, the chief of the Southern Pataliputra Dravidian Sanghaat, who lived around the latter half of the first century BCE and the former half of the first century CE. Nevertheless, early Digambara or Svetambara Jaina texts do not mention Valluvar or the Kural text. The first claim of Valluvar as an authority appears in a 16th-century Jain text.

According to other scholars, Valluvar's writings suggest that he belonged to Hinduism. Hindu teachers have mapped his teachings in the Kural literature to the teachings found in Hindu texts. The three parts that the Kural is divided into, namely, ''aṟam'' (virtue), ''poruḷ'' (wealth) and ''inbam'' (love), aiming at attaining ''veedu'' (ultimate salvation), follow, respectively, the four foundations of Hinduism, namely, dharma, artha, kama and moksha. While the text extols the virtue of non-violence, it also dedicates many of 700 ''poruḷ'' couplets to various aspects of statecraft and warfare in a manner similar to the Hindu text ''Arthasastra''. An army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice. His mentioning of God Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 suggests the Vaishnavite beliefs of Valluvar. P. R. Natarajan lists at least 24 different usage of Hindu origin in 29 different couplets across the Kural text. According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Kural text suggests that Valluvar was a Hindu, and not a Jain. Matthieu Ricard believes Valluvar belonged to the Shaivite tradition of South India. According to Thomas Manninezhath – a theology scholar who grew up in South India, the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' is believed by the natives to reflect Advaita Vedanta philosophy and teaches an "Advaitic way of life".

Valluvar is praised by scholars for his innate nature to select the best virtues found in all the known works and present them in a manner that is common and acceptable to everyone. The author is remembered and cherished for his universal secular values, and his treatise has been called ''Ulaga Podhu Marai'' (the universal scripture).

Contents

The Kural is structured into 133 chapters, each containing 10 couplets (or kurals), for a total of 1,330 couplets. All the couplets are in '' kural venba'' metre, and all the 133 chapters have an ethical theme and are grouped into three parts, or "books":

* Book I – ''Aṟam'' (): Book of Virtue (Dharma), dealing with moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy (Chapters 1–38)
* Book II – ''Poruḷ'' (): Book of Polity (Artha), dealing with socio-economic values, polity, society and administration (Chapters 39–108)
* Book III – ''Inbam'' (): Book of Love ( Kama), dealing with psychological values and love (Chapters 109–133)

The book on ''aṟam'' (virtue) contains 380 verses, that of ''poruḷ'' (wealth) has 700 and that of ''inbam'' or ''kāmam'' (love) has 250. Each ''kural'' or couplet contains exactly seven words, known as ''cir''s, with four ''cir''s on the first line and three on the second, following the kural metre. A ''cir'' is a single or a combination of more than one Tamil word. For example, the term ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' is a ''cir'' formed by combining the two words ''tiru'' and ''kuṟaḷ''. The Kural text has a total of 9310 ''cir''s made of 14,000 Tamil words.

Of the 1,330 couplets in the text, 40 couplets relate to god, rain, ascetics, and virtue; 340 on fundamental everyday virtues of an individual; 250 on royalty; 100 on ministers of state; 220 on essential requirements of administration; 130 on social morality, both positive and negative; and 250 on human love and passion.

Along with the Bhagavad Gita, the Kural is one of the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics. The work largely reflects the first three of the four ancient Indian aims in life, known as '' purushaarthas'', viz., virtue (''dharma''), wealth (''artha'') and love (''kama''). The fourth aim, namely, salvation (''moksha'') has been omitted from being dealt with as the fourth book since it does not lend itself to didactic treatment, but is implicit in the last five chapters of Book I. The components of ''aṟam'', ''poruḷ'' and ''inbam'' encompasses both the ''agam'' and ''puram'' genres of the Tamil literary tradition as explained in the Tolkappiyam. According to Sharma, ''dharma'' (''aṟam'') refers to ethical values for the holistic pursuit of life, ''artha'' (''poruḷ'') refers to wealth obtained in ethical manner guided by ''dharma'', and ''kāma'' (''Inbam'') refers to pleasure and fulfilment of one's desires, also guided by ''dharma''. The corresponding goals of ''poruḷ'' and ''inbam'' are desirable, yet both need to be regulated by ''aṟam'', according to J. Arunadevi. According to Indian philosophical tradition, one must remain unattached to wealth and possessions, which can either be transcended or sought with detachment and awareness, and pleasure needs to be fulfilled consciously and without harming anyone. The Indian tradition also holds that there exists an inherent tension between ''artha'' and ''kama''. Thus, wealth and pleasure must be pursued with an "action with renunciation" (Nishkama Karma), that is, one must act without craving in order to resolve this tension.

The content of ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', according to Zvelebil:
;Book I—Book of Virtue (38 chapters)
* Chapter 1. In Praise of God ( ''kaṭavuḷ vāḻttu''): Couplets 1–10
* Chapter 2. The Excellence of Rain ( ''vāṉ ciṟappu''): 11–20
* Chapter 3. The Greatness of Those Who Have Renounced ( ''nīttār perumai''): 21–30
* Chapter 4. Assertion of the strength of Virtue ( ''aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal''): 31–40
* Chapter 5. Domestic Life ( ''ilvāḻkkai''): 41–50
* Chapter 6. The Goodness of Spouse ( ''vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam''): 51–60
* Chapter 7. The Obtaining of Sons ( ''putalvaraip peṟutal''): 61–70
* Chapter 8. The Possession of Affection ( ''aṉpuṭaimai''): 71–80
* Chapter 9. Hospitality ( ''viruntōmpal''): 81–90
* Chapter 10. Kindly Speech ( ''iṉiyavai kūṟal''): 91–100
* Chapter 11. Gratitude ( ''ceynnaṉṟi aṟital''): 101–110
* Chapter 12. Impartiality ( ''naṭuvu nilaimai''): 111–120
* Chapter 13. Self-control ( ''aṭakkamuṭaimai''): 121–130
* Chapter 14. Decorous Conduct ( ''oḻukkamuṭaimai''): 131–140
* Chapter 15. Not Coveting Another's Wife ( ''piṟaṉil viḻaiyāmai''): 141–150
* Chapter 16. Forbearance ( ''poṟaiyuṭaimai''): 151–160
* Chapter 17. Absence of Envy ( ''aḻukkāṟāmai''): 161–170
* Chapter 18. Not Coveting ( ''veḵkāmai''): 171–180
* Chapter 19. Not Speaking Evil of the Absent ( ''puṟaṅkūṟāmai''): 181–190
* Chapter 20. Not Speaking Senseless Words ( ''payaṉila collāmai''): 191–200
* Chapter 21. Dread of Evil Deeds ( ''tīviṉaiyaccam''): 201–210
* Chapter 22. Recognition of Duty ( ''oppuravaṟital''): 211–220
* Chapter 23. Giving ( ''īkai''): 221–230
* Chapter 24. Fame ( ''pukaḻ''): 231–240
* Chapter 25. Possession of Benevolence ( ''aruḷuṭaimai''): 241–250
* Chapter 26. Abstinence from Flesh (Vegetarianism) ( ''pulāṉmaṟuttal''): 251–260
* Chapter 27. Penance ( ''tavam''): 261–270
* Chapter 28. Inconsistent Conduct ( ''kūṭāvoḻukkam''): 271–280
* Chapter 29. Absence of Fraud ( ''kaḷḷāmai''): 281–290
* Chapter 30. Truthfulness ( ''vāymai''): 291–300
* Chapter 31. Refraining from Anger ( ''vekuḷāmai''): 301–310
* Chapter 32. Inflicting No Pain ( ''iṉṉāceyyāmai''): 311–320
* Chapter 33. Not Killing ( ''kollāmai''): 321–330
* Chapter 34. Instability of Earthly Things ( ''nilaiyāmai''): 331–340
* Chapter 35. Renunciation ( ''tuṟavu''): 341–350
* Chapter 36. Perception of the Truth ( ''meyyuṇartal''): 351–360
* Chapter 37. Rooting Out Desire ( ''avāvaṟuttal''): 361–370
* Chapter 38. Past Deeds ( ''ūḻ'' = ''karma''): 371–380
;Book II—Book of Polity (70 chapters)
* Chapter 39. The Greatness of a King ( ''iṟaimāṭci''): 381–390
* Chapter 40. Learning ( ''kalvi''): 391–400
* Chapter 41. Ignorance ( ''kallāmai''): 401–410
* Chapter 42. Learning through Listening ( ''kēḷvi''): 411–420
* Chapter 43. Possession of Knowledge ( ''aṟivuṭaimai''): 421–430
* Chapter 44. The Correction of Faults ( ''kuṟṟaṅkaṭital''): 431–440
* Chapter 45. Seeking the Help of the Great ( ''periyārait tuṇaikkōṭal''): 441–450
* Chapter 46. Avoiding Mean Associations ( ''ciṟṟiṉañcērāmai''): 451–460
* Chapter 47. Acting after Right Consideration ( ''terintuceyalvakai''): 461–470
* Chapter 48. Recognition of Power ( ''valiyaṟital''): 471–480
* Chapter 49. Recognition of Opportunity ( ''kālamaṟital''): 481–490
* Chapter 50. Recognition of Place ( ''iṭaṉaṟital''): 491–500
* Chapter 51. Selection and Confidence ( ''terintuteḷital''): 501–510
* Chapter 52. Selection and Employment ( ''terintuviṉaiyāṭal''): 511–520
* Chapter 53. Cherishing One's Kin ( ''cuṟṟantaḻāl''): 521–530
* Chapter 54. Unforgetfulness ( ''poccāvāmai''): 531–540
* Chapter 55. The Right Sceptre ( ''ceṅkōṉmai''): 541–550
* Chapter 56. The Cruel Sceptre ( ''koṭuṅkōṉmai''): 551–560
* Chapter 57. Absence of Tyranny ( ''veruvantaceyyāmai''): 561–570
* Chapter 58. Benignity ( ''kaṇṇōṭṭam''): 571–580
* Chapter 59. Spies ( ''oṟṟāṭal''): 581–590
* Chapter 60. Energy ( ''ūkkamuṭaimai''): 591–600
* Chapter 61. Unsluggishness ( ''maṭiyiṉmai''): 601–610
* Chapter 62. Manly Effort ( ''āḷviṉaiyuṭaimai''): 611–620
* Chapter 63. Not Despairing in Trouble ( ''iṭukkaṇ aḻiyāmai''): 621–630
* Chapter 64. Ministry ( ''amaiccu''): 631–640
* Chapter 65. Power in Speech ( ''colvaṉmai''): 641–650
* Chapter 66. Purity in Action ( ''viṉaittūymai''): 651–660
* Chapter 67. Firmness in Deeds ( ''viṉaittiṭpam''): 661–670
* Chapter 68. Method of Action ( ''viṉaiceyalvakai''): 671–680
* Chapter 69. The Envoy ( ''tūtu''): 681–690
* Chapter 70. Conduct in the Presence of King ( ''maṉṉaraic cērntoḻutal''): 691–700
* Chapter 71. Knowledge of Signs ( ''kuṟippaṟital''): 701–710
* Chapter 72. Knowledge in the Council Chamber ( ''avaiyaṟital''): 711–720
* Chapter 73. Not to Fear the Council ( ''avaiyañcāmai''): 721–730
* Chapter 74. The Land ( ''nāṭu''): 731–740
* Chapter 75. The Fort ( ''araṇ''): 741–750
* Chapter 76. Ways of Accumulating Wealth ( ''poruḷceyalvakai''): 751–760
* Chapter 77. Greatness of the Army ( ''paṭaimāṭci''): 761–770
* Chapter 78. Military Spirit ( ''paṭaiccerukku''): 771–780
* Chapter 79. Friendship ( ''naṭpu''): 781–790
* Chapter 80. Scrutiny of Friendships ( ''naṭpārāytal''): 791–800
* Chapter 81. Familiarity ( ''paḻaimai''): 801–810
* Chapter 82. Evil Friendship ( ''tī naṭpu''): 811–820
* Chapter 83. Faithless Friendship ( ''kūṭānaṭpu''): 821–830
* Chapter 84. Folly ( ''pētaimai''): 831–840
* Chapter 85. Ignorance ( ''pullaṟivāṇmai''): 841–850
* Chapter 86. Hostility ( ''ikal''): 851–860
* Chapter 87. The Excellence of Hate ( ''pakaimāṭci''): 861–870
* Chapter 88. Skill in the Conduct of Quarrels ( ''pakaittiṟanterital''): 871–880
* Chapter 89. Secret Enmity ( ''uṭpakai''): 881–890
* Chapter 90. Not Offending the Great ( ''periyāraip piḻaiyāmai''): 891–900
* Chapter 91. Being Led by Women ( ''peṇvaḻiccēṟal''): 901–910
* Chapter 92. Wanton Women ( ''varaiviṉmakaḷir''): 911–920
* Chapter 93. Abstinence from Liquor ( ''kaḷḷuṇṇāmai''): 921–930
* Chapter 94. Gambling ( ''cūtu''): 931–940
* Chapter 95. Medicine ( ''maruntu''): 941–950
* Chapter 96. Nobility ( ''kuṭimai''): 951–960
* Chapter 97. Honour ( ''māṉam''): 961–970
* Chapter 98. Greatness (''perumai''): 971–980
* Chapter 99. Perfect Excellence ( ''cāṉṟāṇmai''): 981–990
* Chapter 100. Courtesy ( ''paṇpuṭaimai''): 991–1000
* Chapter 101. Useless Wealth ( ''naṉṟiyilcelvam''): 1001–1010
* Chapter 102. Shame ( ''nāṇuṭaimai''): 1011–1020
* Chapter 103. On Raising the Family ( ''kuṭiceyalvakai''): 1021–1030
* Chapter 104. Agriculture ( ''uḻavu''): 1031–1040
* Chapter 105. Poverty ( ''nalkuravu''): 1041–1050
* Chapter 106. Mendicancy (''iravu''): 1051–1060
* Chapter 107. The Dread of Mendicancy ( ''iravaccam''): 1061–1070
* Chapter 108. Vileness ( ''kayamai''): 1071–1080
;Book III—Book of Love (25 chapters)
* Chapter 109. Mental Disturbance Caused by the Lady's Beauty ( ''takaiyaṇaṅkuṟuttal''): 1081–1090
* Chapter 110. Recognizing the Signs (''kuṟippaṟital''): 1091–1100
* Chapter 111. Rejoicing in the Sexual Union ( ''puṇarccimakiḻtal''): 1101–1110
* Chapter 112. Praising Her Beauty ( ''nalampuṉainturaittal''): 1111–1120
* Chapter 113. Declaration of Love's Excellence ( ''kātaṟciṟappuraittal''): 1121–1130
* Chapter 114. The Abandonment of Reserve ( ''nāṇuttuṟavuraittal''): 1131–1140
* Chapter 115. Rumour ( ''alaraṟivuṟuttal''): 1141–1150
* Chapter 116. Separation is Unendurable ( ''pirivāṟṟāmai''): 1151–1160
* Chapter 117. Complaining of Absence (''paṭarmelintiraṅkal''): 1161–1170
* Chapter 118. Eyes Concerned with Grief ( ''kaṇvituppaḻital''): 1171–1180
* Chapter 119. Grief's Pallor ( ''pacappaṟuparuvaral''): 1181–1190
* Chapter 120. The Solitary Anguish ( ''taṉippaṭarmikuti''): 1191–1200
* Chapter 121. Sad Memories ( ''niṉaintavarpulampal''): 1201–1210
* Chapter 122. Visions of Night ( ''kaṉavunilaiyuraittal''): 1211–1220
* Chapter 123. Lamentations at Evening ( ''poḻutukaṇṭiraṅkal''): 1221–1230
* Chapter 124. Wasting Away ( ''uṟuppunalaṉaḻital''): 1231–1240
* Chapter 125. Soliloquies ( ''neñcoṭukiḷattal''): 1241–1250
* Chapter 126. Reserve Destroyed ( ''niṟaiyaḻital''): 1251–1260
* Chapter 127. Longing for the Return ( ''avarvayiṉvitumpal''): 1261–1270
* Chapter 128. Reading of the Signs ( ''kuṟippaṟivuṟuttal''): 1271–1280
* Chapter 129. Desire for Reunion ( ''puṇarccivitumpal''): 1281–1290
* Chapter 130. Arguing with One's Heart ( ''neñcoṭupulattal''): 1291–1300
* Chapter 131. Lover's Quarrel ( ''pulavi''): 1301–1310
* Chapter 132. Petty Jealousies ( ''pulavi nuṇukkam''): 1311–1320
* Chapter 133. Pleasures of Temporary Variance ( ''ūṭaluvakai''): 1321–1330

Structure

The Kural text is the work of a single author because it has a consistent "language, formal structure and content-structure", states Zvelebil. Neither is the Kural an anthology nor is there any later additions to the text. The division into three parts (''muppāl'') is probably the author's work. However, the subdivisions beyond these three, known as ''iyal''s, as found in some surviving manuscripts and commentaries, are likely later additions because there are variations between these subtitles found in manuscripts and those in historical commentaries.

Starting from the medieval era, commentators have multifariously divided the Kural text into different ''iyal'' sub-divisions, grouping the Kural chapters diversely under them. The idea of subdividing the Tirukkural into ''iyal'' sub-divisions was first put forth by a Tiruvalluva Maalai verse attributed to Nanpalur Sirumedhaviyar. The medieval commentators have variously grouped the chapters of Book I into three and four ''iyal''s, grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely; while Parimelalhagar divided it into three ''iyal''s, others divided it into four, with some 20th-century commentators going up to six. Book II has been variously subdivided between three and six ''iyal''s. The chapters of Book III have been variously grouped between two and five ''iyal''s. For example, the following subdivisions or ''iyal''s are found in Parimelalhagar's version, which greatly varies from that of Manakkudavar's:
* Chapters 1–4: Introduction
* Chapters 5–24: Domestic virtue
* Chapters 25–38: Ascetic virtue
* Chapters 39–63: Royalty, the qualities of the leader of men
* Chapters 64–73: The subject and the ruler
* Chapters 74–96: Essential parts of state, shrewdness in public life
* Chapters 97–108: Reaching perfection in social life
* Chapters 109–115: Concealed love
* Chapters 116–133: Wedded love

Modern scholars and publishers chiefly follow Parimelalhagar's model for couplet numbering, chapter ordering, and grouping the chapters into ''iyal''s.

Such subdivisions are likely later additions, but the couplets themselves have been preserved in the original form and there is no evidence of later revisions or insertions into the couplets. Thus, in spite of these later subdivisions by the medieval commentators, both the domestic and ascetic virtues in Book I are addressed to the householder or commoner. As Yu Hsi puts it, "Valluvar speaks to the duties of the commoner acting in different capacities as son, father, husband, friend, citizen, and so forth." According to A. Gopalakrishnan, ascetic virtues in the Kural does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life, but only refers to giving up immoderate desires and having self-control that is expected of every individual. According to Joanne Punzo Waghorne, professor of religion and South Asian studies at the Syracuse University, the Kural is "a homily on righteous living for the householder."

Like the three-part division, and unlike the ''iyal'' subdivisions, the grouping of the couplets into chapters is the author's. Every topic that Valluvar handles in his work are presented in ten couplets forming a chapter, and the chapter is usually named using a keyword found in the couplets in it. Exceptions to this convention are found in all the three books of the Kural text as in Chapter 1 in the Book of Aram, Chapter 78 in the Book of Porul, and Chapter 117 in the Book of Inbam, where the words used in title of the chapters are not found anywhere in the chapter's couplets. Here again, the titles of all the chapters of the Kural text are given by Valluvar himself. According to S. N. Kandasamy, the naming of the first chapter of the Kural text is in accord with the convention used in the ''Tolkappiyam''.

According to Zvelebil, the content of the Kural text is "undoubtedly patterned" and "very carefully structured." There are no structural gaps in the text, with every couplet indispensable for the structured whole. There are two distinct meanings for every couplet, namely, a structural one and a proverbial one. In their isolated form, that is, when removed from the context of the 10-couplet chapter, the couplets lose their structural meaning but retain the "wise saying, moral maxim" sense. In isolation, a couplet is "a perfect form, possessing, in varying degree, the prosodic and rhetoric qualities of gnomic poetry." Within the chapter-structure, the couplets acquire their structural meaning and reveal the more complete teaching of the author. This, Zvelebil states, is the higher pattern in the Kural text, and finally, in relation to the entire work, they acquire perfection in the totality of their structure. In terms of structural flow, the text journeys the reader from "the imperfect, incomplete" state of man implicit in the early chapters to the "physically, morally, intellectually and emotionally perfect" state of man living as a husband and citizen, states Zvelebil. In poetic terms, it fuses verse and aphoristic form in diction in a "pithy, vigorous, forceful and terse" manner. It is an ethics text that expounds a universal, moral and practical approach to life. Throughout the work, Valluvar is more considerate about the substance than the linguistic appeal of his writing.

Substance

The Kural text is marked by pragmatic idealism, focused on "man in the totality of his relationships". Despite being a classic, the work has little scope for any poetic excellence. According to Zvelebil, the text does not feature "true and great poetry" throughout the work, except, notably, in the third book, which deals with love and pleasure. This emphasis on substance rather than poetry suggests that Valluvar's main aim was not to produce a work of art, but rather an instructive text focused on wisdom, justice, and ethics.

The Kural text begins with an invocation of God and then praises the rain for being the vitalizer of all life forms on earth. It proceeds to describe the qualities of a righteous person, before concluding the introduction by emphasizing the value of ''aṟam'' or virtue. It continues to treat ''aṟam'' in all walks of life, supplementing it with a chapter on predestination. Valluvar extols rain next only to God for it provides food and serves as the basis of a stable economic life by aiding in agriculture, which Valluvar asserts as the most important economic activity later in Book II of the Kural text.

The three books of the Kural base ''aṟam'' or dharma (virtue) as its cornerstone, which resulted in the Kural being referred to simply as ''Aṟam''. Contrary to what other contemporary works say, Valluvar holds that ''aṟam'' is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it. According to Albert Schweitzer, the idea that good must be done for its own sake comes from various couplets across the Kural text. The text is a comprehensive pragmatic work that presents philosophy in the first part, political science in the second and poetics in the third. Of the three books of the Kural literature, the second one on politics and kingdom (''poruḷ'') is about twice the size of the first, and three times that of the third. In the 700 couplets on ''poruḷ'' (53 percent of the text), Valluvar mostly discusses statecraft and warfare. While other Sangam texts approved of, and even glorified, the four immoral deeds of meat-eating, alcohol consumption, polygamy, and prostitution, the Kural literature strongly condemns these as crimes. In fact, it was the Kural text that condemned these as crimes for the first time in the history of the Tamil land.

The Kural is based on the doctrine of ''ahimsa''. According to Schweitzer, the Kural "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage." Accordingly, Valluvar dictates the householder to renounce the eating of meat "in order that he may become a man of grace." While the Bible and other Abrahamic texts condemns only the taking away of human life, the Kural unequivocally and exclusively condemns the "literal taking away of life," regardless of whether it is human or animal. The greatest of personal virtues according to the Kural text is non-killing, followed by veracity, and the two greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat-eating. The Kural differs from every other work on morality in that it follows ethics, surprisingly a divine one, even in its Book of Love. In the words of Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Valluvar maintains his views on personal morality even in the Book of Love, where one can normally expect greater poetic leniency, by describing the hero as "a one-woman man" without concubines. In a social and political context, the Kural text glorifies valour and victory during war and recommends a death sentence for the wicked only as a means of justice.

According to Kaushik Roy, the Kural text in substance is a classic on realism and pragmatism, and it is not a mystic, purely philosophical document. Valluvar presents his theory of state using six elements: army (''patai''), subjects (''kuti''), treasure (''kul''), ministers (''amaiccu''), allies (''natpu''), and forts (''aran''). Valluvar also recommends forts and other infrastructure, supplies and food storage in preparation for siege. A king and his army must always be ready for war, and should launch a violent offensive, at the right place and right time, when the situation so demands and particularly against morally weak and corrupt kingdoms. A good and strong kingdom must be protected with forts made of thick, high and impenetrable walls. The text recommends a hierarchical military organization staffed with fearless soldiers who are willing to die in war, drawing from the Hindu concepts of non-mystic realism and readiness for war.

The Kural text does not recommend democracy; rather it accepts a royalty with ministers bound to a code of ethics and a system of justice. The king in the text, states K. V. Nagarajan, is assigned the "role of producing, acquiring, conserving, and dispensing wealth". The king's duty is to provide a just rule, be impartial and have courage in protecting his subjects and in meting out justice and punishment. The text supports death penalty for the wicked in the book of ''poruḷ'', but does so only after emphasizing non-killing as every individual's personal virtue in the book of ''aṟam''. The Kural cautions against tyranny, appeasement and oppression, with the suggestion that such royal behavior causes natural disasters, depletes the state's wealth and ultimately results in the loss of power and prosperity.

Valluvar remained a generalist rather than a specialist in any particular field. He never indulged in specifics but always stressed on the basic principles of morality. This can be seen across the Kural text: while Valluvar talks about worshiping God, he refrains from mentioning the way of worshiping; he refers to God as an "ultimate reality" without calling him by any name; he talks about land, village, country, kingdom, and king but never refers them by any name; though he mentions about the value of reading and reciting scriptures, he never names them; he talks about the values of charity without laying down the rules for it; though he repeatedly emphasizes about the importance of learning, he never says what is to be learnt; he recommends taxation in governance but does not suggesting any proportion of collection.

Similes and pseudo-contradictions

The author seldom shows any concern as to what similes and superlatives he used earlier while writing later chapters, purposely allowing for some repetitions and apparent contradictions in ideas one can find in the Kural text. Despite knowing its seemingly contradictory nature from a purist point of view, Valluvar employs this method to emphasise the importance of the given code of ethic. Following are some of the instances where Valluvar employs pseudo-contradictions to expound the virtues.
* While in Chapter 93 Valluvar writes on the evils of intoxication, in Chapter 109 he uses the same to show the sweetness of love by saying love is sweeter than wine.
* To the question "What is wealth of all wealth?" Valluvar points to two different things, namely, grace (kural 241) and hearing (kural 411).
* In regard to the virtues one should follow dearly even at the expense of other virtues, Valluvar points to veracity (kural 297), not coveting another's wife (kural 150), and not being called a slanderer (kural 181). In essence, however, in Chapter 33 he crowns non-killing as the foremost of all virtues, pushing even the virtue of veracity to the second place (kural 323).
* Whereas he says that one can eject what is natural or inborn in him (kural 376), he indicates that one can overcome the inherent natural flaws by getting rid of laziness (kural 609).
* While in Chapter 7 he asserts that the greatest gain men can obtain is by their learned children (kural 61), in Chapter 13 he says that it is that which is obtained by self-control (kural 122).

The ethical connections between these verses are widely elucidated ever since the medieval commentaries. For example, Parimelalhagar elucidates the ethical connections between couplets 380 and 620, 481 and 1028, 373 and 396, and 383 and 672 in his commentary.

Commentaries and translations

Commentaries

The Kural is one of the most reviewed of all works in Tamil literature, and almost every notable scholar of Tamil has written exegesis or commentaries (explanation in prose or verse), known in Tamil as ''urai'', on it. Some of the Tamil literature that was composed after the Kural quote or borrow its couplets in their own texts. According to Aravindan, these texts may be considered as the early commentaries to the Kural text.

Dedicated commentaries on the Kural text began to appear about and after the 10th century CE. There were at least ten medieval commentaries of which only six have survived into the modern era. The ten medieval commentators include Manakkudavar, Dharumar, Dhamatthar, Nacchar, Paridhiyar, Thirumalaiyar, Mallar, Pari Perumal, Kaalingar, and Parimelalhagar, all of whom lived between the 10th and the 13th centuries CE. Of these, only the works of Manakkudavar, Paridhi, Kaalingar, Pari Perumal, and Parimelalhagar are available today. The works of Dharumar, Dhaamatthar, and Nacchar are only partially available. The commentaries by Thirumalaiyar and Mallar are lost completely. The best known among these are the commentaries by Parimelalhagar, Kaalingar, and Manakkudavar. Among the ten medieval commentaries, scholars have found spelling, homophonic, and other minor textual variations in a total of 900 couplets, including 217 couplets in Book I, 487 couplets in Book II, and 196 couplets in Book III.

The best known and influential historic commentary on the Kural text is the ''Parimelalhakiyar virutti''. It was written by Parimelalhagar – a Vaishnava Brahmin, likely based in Kanchipuram, who lived about or before 1272 CE. Along with the Kural text, this commentary has been widely published and is in itself a Tamil classic. Parimelalhagar's commentary has survived over the centuries in many folk and scholarly versions. A more scholarly version of this commentary was published by Krisnamachariyar in 1965. According to Norman Cutler, Parimelalhagar's commentary interprets and maneuvers the Kural text within his own context, grounded in the concepts and theological premises of Hinduism. His commentary closely follows the Kural's teachings, while reflecting both the cultural values and textual values of the 13th- and 14th-century Tamil Nadu. Valluvar's text can be interpreted and maneuvered in other ways, states Cutler.

Besides the ten medieval commentaries, there are at least three more commentaries written by unknown medieval authors. One of them was published under the title "Palhaiya Urai" (meaning ancient commentary), while the second one was based on Paridhiyar's commentary. The third one was published in 1991 under the title "Jaina Urai" (meaning Jaina commentary) by Saraswathi Mahal Library in Thanjavur. Following these medieval commentaries, there are at least 21 venpa commentaries to the Kural, including Somesar Mudumoli Venba, Murugesar Muduneri Venba, Sivasiva Venba, Irangesa Venba, Vadamalai Venba, Dhinakara Venba, and Jinendra Venba, all of which are considered commentaries in verse form. The 16th-century commentary by Thirumeni Rathna Kavirayar, and the 19th-century commentary by Ramanuja Kavirayar, are some of the well-known scholarly works before the 20th century.

Several modern commentaries started appearing in the 19th and 20th centuries. Of these, the commentaries by Kaviraja Pandithar and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer are considered classic by modern scholars. Some of the commentaries of the 20th century include those by K. Vadivelu Chettiar, Krishnampet K. Kuppusamy Mudaliar, Iyothee Thass, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Thiru Vi Ka, Bharathidasan, M. Varadarajan, Namakkal Kavignar

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