Indian culture is the

heritage Heritage may refer to: History and society * A heritage asset is a preexisting thing of value today ** Cultural heritage is created by humans ** Natural heritage is not * Heritage language Biology * Heredity, biological inheritance of physical c ...

of social norms,

ethical value In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of dif ...

tradition A tradition is a belief or behavior (folk custom) passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examples include holidays or ...

al customs, belief systems,

political system In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state (polity), state. It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comp ...

s, artifacts and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

. The term also applies beyond India to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to India by immigration, colonisation, or influence, particularly in

South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;; ...

and

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...

. India's

languages Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...

religions Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...

dance Dance is a performing art form consisting of sequences of movement, either improvised or purposefully selected. This movement has aesthetic and often symbolic value. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire ...

music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings ...

food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is in ...

and customs differ from place to place within the country. Indian culture, often labelled as a combination of several cultures, has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old, beginning with the

Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900& ...

and other early cultural areas.John Keay (2012), ''India: A History'', 2nd Ed – Revised and Updated, Grove Press / Harper Collins, , see Introduction and Chapters 3 through 11Mohammada, Malika (2007), ''The foundations of the composite culture in India'', Aakar Books, Many elements of Indian culture, such as

Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification of ...

mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...

cuisine A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs, and ingredients combine to ...

and

movies A film also called a movie, motion picture, moving picture, picture, photoplay or (slang) flick is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmospher ...

have had a profound impact across the

Indosphere Indosphere is a term coined by the linguist James Matisoff for areas of Indian linguistic and cultural influence in South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is commonly used in areal linguistics in contrast with Sinosphere. Influence The Tibeto-B ...

Greater India Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, is an area composed of many countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture, which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures ...

and the world. Specifically Southeast Asian and Himalayan influence on early India, had lasting impacts on the formation of Hinduism and Indian mythology. Hinduism itself formed from various distinct folk religions, which merged during the

Vedic period The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (ca. 1300–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, betwe ...

and following periods. Especially Austroasiatic groups, such as early Munda and

Mon Khmer The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are t ...

, but also Tibetic and other

Tibeto-Burmese The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non-Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spe ...

groups, left noteworthy influence on local Indian peoples and culture. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and rice cultivation, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. The

British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was him ...

further influenced Indian culture, such as through the widespread introduction of the

English language English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the ...

, and a local

dialect The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety of a language that is ...

developed.

Religious culture

Indian-origin religions

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

, and

Sikhism Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...

,Adams, C. J.
Classification of religions: Geographical
,

Encyclopædia Britannica The (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various t ...

, 2007. Accessed: 15 July 2010 are all based on the concepts of

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

and

karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...

Ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

, the philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was

Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...

, who used civil disobedience to unite India during the

Indian independence movement The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending British rule in India. It lasted from 1857 to 1947. The first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence emerged from Bengal ...

this philosophy further inspired Martin Luther King Jr. during the American

civil rights movement The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social and political movement and campaign from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalized institutional racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement throughout the Unite ...

. Foreign-origin religion, including

Abrahamic religion The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish traditi ...

s, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present in India, as well as

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheisti ...

, Volume 2Stepaniants Marietta, 2002, The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam, journal=Philosophy East and West, volume 52, issue 2, University of Hawai'i Press, page 163. and

Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the essential worth of all religions and the unity of all people. Established by Baháʼu'lláh in the 19th century, it initially developed in Iran and parts of the ...

Mottahedeh, Roy, ''The Mantle of the Prophet : Religion and Politics in Iran'', One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p.238 both escaping persecution by IslamAnn K. S. Lambton, 1981, State and government in medieval Islam: an introduction to the study of Islamic political theory: the jurists, Routledge, page 205, .Meri Josef W., Bacharach Jere L., 2006, Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index, series: Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, volume = II, Taylor & Francis, pages 878, have also found shelter in India over the centuries. India has 28 states and 8 union territories with different culture and it is the second most populated country in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...

and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions.Nikki Staffor
Finding Lost"> Finding Lost
ECW Press, 2006 p. 174 Influence from East/Southeast Asian cultures onto ancient India and early Hinduism, specifically Austroasiatic groups, such as early Munda and

, but also Tibetic and other

groups, had noteworthy impact on local Indian peoples and cultures. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and rice cultivation, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. They have been credited with shaping much of Indian

literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...

, art and

was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the

. This particularly concerns the spread of

administration Administration may refer to: Management of organizations * Management, the act of directing people towards accomplishing a goal ** Administrative Assistant, traditionally known as a Secretary, or also known as an administrative officer, admini ...

and

writing system A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...

from India to other parts of

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...

through the

Silk Road The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and rel ...

by the travelers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the

Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...

.''Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia'' by Daigorō Chihara p.226 To the west,

overlaps with

Greater Persia Greater Iran ( fa, ایران بزرگ, translit=Irān-e Bozorg) refers to a region covering parts of Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Xinjiang, and the Caucasus, where both Iranian culture and Iranian languages have had a si ...

in the

Hindu Kush The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province ...

and

Pamir Mountains The Pamir Mountains are a mountain range between Central Asia and Pakistan. It is located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges. They are among the wor ...

. Over the centuries, there has been a significant fusion of cultures between

Buddhists Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

Hindus Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

Jains Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

Sikhs Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism (Sikhi), a monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The ter ...

and various tribal populations in India. India is the birthplace of

, and other religions. They are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major form of world religions along with

Abrahamic The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish traditi ...

ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it has a large Muslim population. Except for

Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...

Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi Language, Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also Romanization, romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the I ...

Meghalaya Meghalaya (, or , meaning "abode of clouds"; from Sanskrit , "cloud" + , "abode") is a state in northeastern India. Meghalaya was formed on 21 January 1972 by carving out two districts from the state of Assam: (a) the United Khasi Hills and J ...

Nagaland Nagaland () is a landlocked state in the northeastern region of India. It is bordered by the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh to the north, Assam to the west, Manipur to the south and the Sagaing Region of Myanmar to the east. Its capital cit ...

Mizoram Mizoram () is a state in Northeast India, with Aizawl as its seat of government and capital city. The name of the state is derived from "Mizo", the self-described name of the native inhabitants, and "Ram", which in the Mizo language means "lan ...

and

Lakshadweep Lakshadweep (), also known as Laccadives (), is a union territory of India. It is an archipelago of 36 islands in the Arabian sea, located off the Malabar Coast. The name ''Lakshadweep'' means "one lakh islands" in Sanskrit, though the Lac ...

, Hindus form the predominant population in all 27 states and 9 union territories. Muslims are present throughout India, with large populations in

Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 195 ...

Bihar Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West ...

Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country subdi ...

Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Ca ...

Telangana Telangana (; , ) is a state in India situated on the south-central stretch of the Indian peninsula on the high Deccan Plateau. It is the eleventh-largest state and the twelfth-most populated state in India with a geographical area of and 35 ...

Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...

West Bengal West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fou ...

and

Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...

; while only

and

have majority Muslim populations.

Christians Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρ� ...

are other significant minorities of India. Because of the diversity of religious groups in India, there has been a history of turmoil and violence between them. India has been a theatre for violent religious clashes between members of different religions such as

Muslims Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

, and

. Several groups have founded various national-religious political parties, and in spite of government policies minority religious groups are being subjected to prejudice from more dominant groups in order to maintain and control resources in particular regions of India. According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the

population of India Population typically refers to the number of people in a single area, whether it be a city or town, region, country, continent, or the world. Governments typically quantify the size of the resident population within their jurisdiction us ...

practice

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...

(14.2%),

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...

(2.3%),

(1.7%),

(0.7%) and

(0.4%) are the other major religions followed by the people of India. Many tribal religions, such as Sarnaism, are found in India, though these have been affected by major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. Jainism,

Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in th ...

, and the

are also influential but their numbers are smaller.

Atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...

and agnostics also have visible influence in India, along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other faiths. According to a study conducted by the Pew Research Centre, India will have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims by 2050. India is expected to have about 311 million Muslims making up around 19–20% of the population and yet about 1.3 billion Hindus are projected to live in India comprising around 76% of the population.

and

agnosticism Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. (page 56 in 1967 edition) Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficien ...

have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement. The ''

Cārvāka Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embra ...

'' school originated in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the earliest form of materialistic and atheistic movement in ancient India. Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the

Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a dualistic school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prakṛti'', (nature ...

, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.", Sramana,

Ājīvika ''Ajivika'' (IAST: ) is one of the Āstika and nāstika, ''nāstika'' or "heterodox" schools of Indian philosophy.Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, , pages 20-23James Lochtefeld, "Ajivik ...

and some schools of

consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of creator deity,

ritualism Ritualism, in the history of Christianity, refers to an emphasis on the rituals and liturgical ceremonies of the church. Specifically, the Christian ritual of Holy Communion. In the Anglican church in the 19th century, the role of ritual becam ...

and

superstitions A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly applied to beliefs a ...

. India has produced some notable atheist politicians and social reformers. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced

atheist Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no ...

s, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259

Philosophy

Indian philosophy comprises the philosophical traditions of the

. There are six schools of orthodox

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...

—

Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Vaisheshika,

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

Mīmāṃsā ''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts.

and

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, ...

—and four

heterodox In religion, heterodoxy (from Ancient Greek: , "other, another, different" + , "popular belief") means "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy, w ...

schools—

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

and

– last two are also schools of Hinduism. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyarania for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the

Śaiva Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

and

Raseśvara ''Raseśvara'' was a Shaiva philosophical tradition which arose around the 1st century CE. It advocated the use of mercury to make the body immortal. This school was based on the texts Rasārṇava, Rasahṛidaya and Raseśvarasiddhānta, compos ...

traditions.Cowell and Gough, p. xii. Since

medieval India Medieval India refers to a long period of Post-classical history of the Indian subcontinent between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running approximately from the breakup of the Gupta Empire in the 6th cen ...

(ca.1000–1500), schools of Indian philosophical thought have been classified by the Brahmanical traditionChatterjee and Datta, p. 5. as either orthodox or non-orthodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they regard the

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

as an infallible source of knowledge. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 BCE to the early centuries of the

. According to philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the earliest of these, which date back to the composition of the

Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

in the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), constitute "the earliest philosophical compositions of the world." Competition and integration between the various schools were intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Śaiva, and

Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...

survived, but others, like

and

, did not; they were either assimilated or became extinct. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century. Authors who gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophies include Shrimad Rajchandra,

Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intr ...

, Ram Mohan Roy, and

Swami Dayananda Saraswati Dayanand Saraswati () (born Mool Shankar Tiwari; 2 February 1824 – 30 October 1883) also known as Maharshi Dayanand is an Indian philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement. His Magnum Opus is the book ...

Family structure and marriage

For generations, India has had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It is when extended members of a family – parents, children, the children's spouses, and their offspring, etc. – live together. Usually, the oldest male member is the head of the joint Indian family system. He mostly makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide by them. With the current economy, lifestyle, and cost of living in most of the metro cities are high, the population is leaving behind the joint family model and adapting to the nuclear family model. Earlier living in a joint family was with the purpose of creating love and concern for the family members. However, now it's a challenge to give time to each other as most of them are out for survival needs. Rise in the trends of nuclear family settings has led to a change in the traditional family headship structure and older males are no longer the mandated heads of the family owing to the fact that they mostly live alone during old age and are far more vulnerable than before. In a 1966 study, Orenstein and Micklin analysed India's population data and family structure. Their studies suggest that Indian household sizes had remained similar over the 1911 to 1951 period. Thereafter, with urbanisation and economic development, India has witnessed a break up of traditional joint family into more nuclear-like families. Sinha, in his book, after summarising the numerous sociological studies done on the Indian family, notes that over the last 60 years, the cultural trend in most parts of India has been an accelerated change from joint family to nuclear families, much like population trends in other parts of the world. The traditionally large joint family in India, in the 1990s, accounted for a small percent of Indian households, and on average had lower per capita household income. He finds that joint family still persists in some areas and in certain conditions, in part due to cultural traditions and in part due to practical factors. Youth in lower socio-economic classes are more inclined to spend time with their families than their peers due to differing ideologies in rural and urban parenting. With the spread of education and growth of economics, the traditional joint-family system is breaking down rapidly across India and attitudes towards working women have changed.

Arranged marriage

Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family members. In the past, the age of marriage was young. The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21 years, according to the 2011 Census of India. In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the age of 18. In most marriages, the bride's family provides a

dowry A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment ...

to the bridegroom. Traditionally, the dowry was considered a woman's share of the family wealth, since a daughter had no legal claim on her natal family's real estate. It also typically included portable valuables such as jewelry and household goods that a bride could control throughout her life. Historically, in most families the inheritance of family estates passed down the male line. Since 1956, Indian laws treat males and females as equal in matters of inheritance without a legal will. Indians are increasingly using a legal will for inheritance and property succession, with about 20 percent using a legal will by 2004. In India, the divorce rate is low — 1% compared with about 40% in the United States. These statistics do not reflect a complete picture, though. There is a dearth of scientific surveys or studies on Indian marriages where the perspectives of both husbands and wives were

solicited Solicitation is the act of offering, or attempting to purchase, goods and/or services. Legal status may be specific to the time or place where it occurs. The crime of "solicitation to commit a crime" occurs when a person encourages, "solicits, ...

in-depth. Sample surveys suggest the issues with marriages in India are similar to trends observed elsewhere in the world. The divorce rates are rising in India. Urban divorce rates are much higher. Women initiate about 80 percent of divorces in India. Recent studies suggest that Indian culture is trending away from traditional arranged marriages. Banerjee et al. surveyed 41,554 households across 33 states and union territories in India in 2005. They find that the marriage trends in India are similar to trends observed over the last 40 years in China, Japan, and other nations. The study found that fewer marriages are purely arranged without consent and that the majority of surveyed Indian marriages are arranged with consent. The percentage of self-arranged marriages (called love marriages in India) was also increasing, particularly in the urban parts of India.

Wedding rituals

Weddings are festive occasions in India with extensive decorations, colors, music, dance, costumes and rituals that depend on the religion of the bride and the groom, as well as their preferences.Sari nights and henna parties
, Amy Yee, The Financial Times, 17 May 2008 The nation celebrates about 10 million weddings per year, of which over 80% are

Hindu wedding A Hindu wedding, also known as Vivaha (Devanagari: विवाह; Kannada script: ವಿವಾಹ; ''Vivaaha'') (), Lagna (लग्न), or Kalyanam (Devanagari: कल्याणम्; Kannada script: ಕಲ್ಯಾಣಮ್; ta, க� ...

s. While there are many festival-related rituals in Hinduism, ''vivaha'' (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, , pages 153–233The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), , Page 427 Typical Hindu families spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate weddings. The rituals and processes of a Hindu wedding vary depending on the region of India, local adaptations, family resources and preferences of the bride and the groom. Nevertheless, there are a few key rituals common in

s – '' Kanyadaan'', ''Panigrahana'', and '' Saptapadi''; these are respectively, gifting away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify impending union, and taking seven circles before firing with each circle including a set of mutual vows. Mangalsutra necklace of bond a Hindu groom ties with three knots around the bride's neck in a marriage ceremony. The practice is integral to a marriage ceremony as prescribed in

Manusmriti The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote the ...

, the traditional law governing Hindu marriage. After the seventh circle and vows of '' Saptapadi'', the couple is legally husband and wife.P.H. Prabhu (2011), ''Hindu Social Organization'', , see pages 164–165 Sikhs get married through a ceremony called Anand Karaj. The couple walks around the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib four times. Indian Muslims celebrate a traditional Islamic wedding following customs similar to those practiced in the

Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...

. The rituals include ''Nikah'', payment of financial dower called ''Mahr'' by the groom to the bride, signing of a marriage contract, and a reception.Three Days of a Traditional Indian Muslim Wedding
, zawaj.com Indian Christian weddings follow customs similar to those practiced in the Christian countries in the West in states like Goa but have more Indian customs in other states.

Festivals

File:Deepawali-festival.jpg, Homes, buildings and temples are decorated with festive lights,

diya Diya may refer to: * ''Diya (film)'', 2018 Tamil- and Telugu-language film * Diya (Islam), Islamic term for monetary compensation for bodily harm or property damage * Diya (lamp), ghee- or oil-based candle often used in South Asian religious ceremo ...

, for

Diwali Diwali (), Dewali, Divali, or Deepavali ( IAST: ''dīpāvalī''), also known as the Festival of Lights, related to Jain Diwali, Bandi Chhor Divas, Tihar, Swanti, Sohrai, and Bandna, is a religious celebration in Indian religions. It is ...

, the festival of lights. File:Samaj gathering during Lathmar hoil.jpg, Color drenched

Gopi Gopi ( sa, गोपी, ) or Gopika in Hinduism are worshipped as the consorts and devotees of Krishna within the Vaishnavism and Krishnaism traditions for their unconditional love and devotion ('' Bhakti'') to god Krishna as described in the ...

s during the

Holi Holi (), also known as the Festival of Colours, the Festival of Spring, and the Festival of Love,The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) p. 874 "Holi /'həʊli:/ noun a Hindu spring festival ...". is an ancient Hindu religious festival ...

celebrations in Krishna Temple, Mathura File:Navratri garba at Ambaji temple.jpg, The

Navaratri Navaratri is an annual Hindu festival observed in the honour of the goddess Durga. It spans over nine nights (and ten days), first in the month of Chaitra (March/April of the Gregorian calendar), and again in the month of Sharada. It is o ...

festival is an occasion of classical and folk dance performances at Hindu temples. Pictured is the

Ambaji Ambaji (''Ambājī'') is a census town in Banaskantha district in the state of Gujarat, India. It is known for its historical connections with sites of cultural heritage. Geography Ambaji is a town within taluka district Banaskantha, Nor ...

Temple of

Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...

. File:Bihu dance Assam. jpg.jpg, The

Bihu Bihu is a set of three important Assamese festivals in the Indian state of Assam – 'Rongali' or 'Bohag Bihu' observed in April, 'Kongali' or 'Kati Bihu' observed in October, and 'Bhogali' or ' Magh Bihu' observed in January. The Rongali Bihu ...

festival is an Assamese tradition; it coincides with

Vaisakhi Vaisakhi (Punjabi: ), also pronounced Baisakhi, marks the first day of the month of Vaisakh and is traditionally celebrated annually on 13 April and sometimes 14 April as a celebration of spring harvest primarily in Northern India. Further, ot ...

in north India, which is observed by Sikhs and Hindus. File:Lalbaug cha raja.jpg, Procession of the famous “Lalbaug cha Raja”

Ganesha Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu ...

idol during the

Ganesh Chaturthi Ganesh Chaturthi ( ISO: ), also known as Vinayak Chaturthi (), or Ganeshotsav () is a Hindu festival commemorating the birth of the Hindu god Ganesha. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesha's clay idols privately in homes and ...

festival in

Mumbai Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the secon ...

File:Kerala boatrace.jpg,

Vallamkali Vallam kali ('' vaḷḷaṃ kaḷi'', literally: boat game) also known as Snake Boat Race is a traditional boat race in Kerala, India. It is a form of canoe racing, and uses paddled war canoes. It is mainly conducted during the season of t ...

snakeboat races are a part of Onam festival tradition. File:Dahi Handi.JPG, Dahi Handi, a

Krishna Janmashtami Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...

festive tradition, in progress near

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

charya Road, Mumbai, India File:Durga Puja 2015.JPG,

Durga Puja Durga Puja ( bn, দুর্গা পূজা), also known as Durgotsava or Sharodotsava, is an annual Hindu festival originating in the Indian subcontinent which reveres and pays homage to the Hindu goddess Durga and is also celebrated ...

is a multi-day festival in Eastern India that features elaborate temple and stage decorations (''

pandal A ''pandal'' in India and neighbouring countries, is a fabricated structure, either temporary or permanent, that is used at many places such as either outside a building or in an open area such as along a public road or in front of a house. This ca ...

s''), scripture recitation, performance arts, revelry, and processions. File:Angami 1863b.jpg, The

Hornbill Festival The Hornbill Festival is an annual festival celebrated from 1 to 10 of December in the Northeastern Indian state of Nagaland. The festival represents List of Naga tribes, all ethnic groups of Nagaland for which it is also called the ''Festival of ...

, Kohima, Nagaland. The festival involves colourful performances, crafts, sports, food fairs, games and ceremonies. File:ꯍꯤꯍꯣꯟꯂꯤꯕꯤ ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯅꯤꯡꯉꯣꯜ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯤꯖꯕꯤ.jpg, Meitei women in boat race Hiyang Tannaba festival,

Manipur Manipur () ( mni, Kangleipak) is a state in Northeast India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. It is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west. It also borders two regions of ...

File:People offering Namaz on the occasion of Id-Ul-Zuha, at Jama Masjid, in New Delhi on August 12, 2019 (1).jpg, Muslims offering

Namaz (, plural , romanized: or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːh, ( or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːtʰin construct state) ), also known as ( fa, نماز) and also spelled , are prayers performed by Muslims. Facing the , the direction of the Kaaba w ...

on the occasion of

Eid al-Fitr , nickname = Festival of Breaking the Fast, Lesser Eid, Sweet Eid, Sugar Feast , observedby = Muslims , type = Islamic , longtype = Islamic , significance = Commemoration to mark the end of fasting in Ramadan , date ...

, at Jama Masjid

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...

File:Floats_for_Goa_carnaval.jpg, Carnival in Goa or ''Viva Carnival'' is a Celebration prior to fasting season of Lent. It refers to the festival of

carnival Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival t ...

, or

Mardi Gras Mardi Gras (, ) refers to events of the Carnival celebration, beginning on or after the Christian feasts of the Epiphany (Three Kings Day) and culminating on the day before Ash Wednesday, which is known as Shrove Tuesday. is French for "Fa ...

, in the Indian state of Goa. File:Mahamastakabhisheka at Shravanabelagola in August 2018 2.jpg,

Gommateshwara statue The Gommateshwara statue is a high monolithic statue on Vindhyagiri Hill in the town of Shravanbelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka. Carved of a single block of granite, it is one of the tallest monolithic statues in the world second only ...

during the Grand Consecration

Mahamastakabhisheka The ''Mahamastakabhisheka'' ("Grand Consecration", "The Great Indian Festival") refers to the '' abhiṣeka'' (anointment) of the Jain images when held on a large scale. The most famous of such consecrations is the anointment of the Bahubali ...

in August 2018 at

Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage d ...

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...

is held every 12 years and it is considered

's one of the most auspicious festival or celebration. Diya deepak Diwali rangoli in goa

India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the

Independence Day An independence day is an annual event commemorating the anniversary of a nation's independence or statehood, usually after ceasing to be a group or part of another nation or state, or more rarely after the end of a military occupation. Many ...

, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of

Navratri Navaratri is an annual Hindu festival observed in the honour of the goddess Durga. It spans over nine nights (and ten days), first in the month of Chaitra (March/April of the Gregorian calendar), and again in the month of Sharada. It is o ...

Janmashtami Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...

, Maha Shivratri,

Rath Yatra Ratha Yatra (), or Chariot festival, is any public procession in a chariot. The term particularly refers to the annual Ratha Yatra in Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal and other East Indian states, particularly the Odia festival that involve a ...

, Ugadi,

Vasant Panchami Vasant Panchami, also called Saraswati Puja in honor of the Hindu goddess Saraswati, is a festival that marks the preparation for the arrival of spring. The festival is celebrated in Indian religions in different ways depending on the region. ...

Rakshabandhan Raksha Bandhan Quote: m Hindi ''rakśābandhan'' held on the full moon of the month of Savan, when sisters tie a talisman (rakhi q.v.) on the arm of their brothers and receive small gifts of money from them. is a popular and traditionally Hin ...

, and

Dussehra Vijayadashami ( sa, विजयदशमी, Vijayadaśamī, translit-std=IAST), also known as Dussehra, Dasara or Dashain, is a major Hindu festival celebrated at the end of Navaratri every year. It is observed on the tenth day in the Hin ...

. Several

harvest festival A harvest festival is an annual celebration that occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region. Given the differences in climate and crops around the world, harvest festivals can be found at various times at different places. ...

s such as

Makar Sankranti Makar(a) Sankranti (), also referred to as Uttarayana, Maghi, or simply Sankranti, is a Hindu observance and a festival. Usually falling on the date of January 14 annually, this occasion marks the transition of the Sun from the zodiac of Sag ...

Sohrai Sohrai is a harvest festival of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal. It also called cattle festival. It is celebrated after harvest and coincide with Govardhan Puja of Diwali festival. It is celebrated ...

, Pusnâ,

Hornbill Hornbills (Bucerotidae) are a family of bird found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Melanesia. They are characterized by a long, down-curved bill which is frequently brightly coloured and sometimes has a casque on the upper mandibl ...

, Chapchar Kut,

Pongal Pongal may refer to: * Pongal (festival), an annual Tamil festival * Pongal (dish) Pongal, also known as pongali or huggi, is an Indian rice dish. In Tamil, "pongal" means "boil" or "bubbling up". The two varieties of pongal are ''chakarai pong ...

, Onam and Raja sankaranti swinging festival are also fairly popular. India celebrates a variety of festivals due to the large diversity of India. Many religious festivals like Diwali (Hindu) Eid (Muslim) Christmas (Christian), etc. are celebrated by all. The government also provides facilities for the celebration of all religious festivals with equality and grants road bookings, security, etc. providing equality to the diverse religions and their festivals. The Indian New Year festival is celebrated in different parts of India with a unique style at different times. Ugadi,

Gudhi Padwa Gudhi Padwa is a spring-time festival that marks the traditional new year for Marathi and Konkani Hindus, but is also celebrated by other Hindus as well. It is celebrated in and around Maharashtra, Goa, Madhya Pradesh and the union terr ...

, Puthandu,

Pohela Boishakh Pohela Boishakh ( bn, পহেলা বৈশাখ) is the first day of the Bengali calendar which is also the official calendar of Bangladesh. This festival is celebrated on 14 April in Bangladesh and 15 April in the Indian states of W ...

, Vishu and Vishuva Sankranti are the New Year festival of different part of India. Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples include

, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains across the country and

Buddha Purnima Buddha's Birthday (also known as Buddha Jayanti, also known as his day of enlightenment – Buddha Purnima, Buddha Pournami) is a Buddhist festival that is celebrated in most of East Asia and South Asia commemorating the birth of the Princ ...

Ambedkar Jayanti Ambedkar Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti is an annual festival observed on 14 April to commemorate the memory of B. R. Ambedkar, Indian politician and civil rights activist. It marks Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar's birthday who was born on 14 April 1891. Si ...

celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Sikh festivals, such as

Guru Nanak Jayanti Guru Nanak Dev Ji Gurpurab also known as Guru Nanak's Prakash Utsav, celebrates the birth of the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak. One of the most celebrated and important Sikh gurus and the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak Dev is highly revered by t ...

, Baisakhi are celebrated with full fanfare by Sikhs and Hindus of

and

where the two communities together form an overwhelming majority of the population. Adding colours to the culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the Apatanis of the Ziro valley of

Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares ...

, which is the easternmost state of India.

Nowruz Nowruz ( fa, نوروز, ; ), zh, 诺鲁孜节, ug, نەۋروز, ka, ნოვრუზ, ku, Newroz, he, נורוז, kk, Наурыз, ky, Нооруз, mn, Наурыз, ur, نوروز, tg, Наврӯз, tr, Nevruz, tk, Nowruz, ...

is the most important festival among the Parsi community of India.

Islam in India Islam is India's second-largest religion, with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people identifying as adherents of Islam in 2011 Census. India is also the country with the second or third largest number of Musli ...

is the second largest religion with over 172 million Muslims, according to India's 2011 census. The Islamic festivals which are observed and are declared public holiday in India are;

Eid al-Adha Eid al-Adha () is the second and the larger of the two main holidays celebrated in Islam (the other being Eid al-Fitr). It honours the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Ismail (Ishmael) as an act of obedience to Allah's com ...

(Bakri Eid), Milad-un-Nabi,

Muharram Muḥarram ( ar, ٱلْمُحَرَّم) (fully known as Muharram ul Haram) is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is one of the four sacred months of the year when warfare is forbidden. It is held to be the second holiest month after ...

and Shab-e-Barat. Some of the Indian states have declared regional holidays for the particular regional popular festivals; such as Arba'een,

Jumu'ah-tul-Wida Jumu'atul-Widaa' ( meaning ''Friday of farewell'', also called al-Jumu'ah al-Yateemah or ''the orphaned Friday'' Urdu: Al-Widaa Juma) is the last Friday in the month of Ramadhan before Eid-ul-Fitr. Etymology Jumu'ah comes from the Arabic word ...

and Shab-e-Qadar.

Christianity in India Christianity is India's third-largest religion with about 27.8 million adherents, making up 2.3 percent of the population as of the 2011 census. The written records of the Saint Thomas Christians state that Christianity was introduced to th ...

is the third-largest religion with over 27.8 million Christians, according to India's 2011 census. With over 27.8 million Christians, of which 17 million are Roman Catholics, India is home to many Christian festivals. The country celebrates

Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year ...

and

Good Friday Good Friday is a Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus and his death at Calvary. It is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum. It is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Great and Holy Friday (also Holy ...

as public holidays. Regional and community fairs are also a common festivals in India. For example, Pushkar Fair of Rajasthan is one of the world's largest markets of cattle and livestock.

Greetings

Indian greetings are based on

Añjali Mudrā Añjali Mudrā ( sa, अञ्जलि मुद्रा), is a hand gesture mainly associated with Indian religions and arts, encountered throughout Asia and beyond. It is a part of Indian classical dance postures such as Bharatanatyam, yoga p ...

, including Pranāma and Puja. Greetings include ''Namaste (Hindi,Sanskrit and Kannada)'', ''Nômôskar'' in

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

, ''Khulumkha'' ( Tripuri), '' Namaskar ( Marathi),'' ''Namaskara ''(Kannada and Sanskrit), ''Namaskaram'' (

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode ...

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry ( Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam wa ...

), ''Vanakkam'' (

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, na ...

), ''Nômôshkar'' (

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

), ''Nomoskar'' ( Assamese), ''Aadab'' (

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a British Th ...

). All these are commonly spoken greetings or salutations when people meet and are forms of farewell when they depart. Namaskar is considered slightly more formal than Namaste but both express deep respect. Namaskar is commonly used in India and

Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...

, Jains and Buddhists, and many continue to use this outside the

. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture may be made wordlessly or said without the folded hand gesture. The word is derived from ''

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

'' (''Namah''): to bow, reverential salutation, and

respect Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. It is also the process of ...

, and (te): "to you". Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". In Hinduism it means "I bow to the divine in you." In most Indian families, younger men and women are taught to seek the blessing of their elders by reverentially bowing to their elders. This custom is known as Pranāma. An Oberoi Hotel employee doing Namaste, New Delhi

An Oberoi Hotel employee doing Namaste, New Delhi

Other greetings include ''Jai Jagannath'' (used in

) ''Ami Aschi'' (used in

), ''Jai Shri Krishna'' (in

Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub- ...

and the

Braj Bhasha The Braj language, ''Braj Bhasha'', also known as Vraj Bhasha or Vrij Bhasha or Braj Bhāṣā or Braji or Brij Bhasha or Braj Boli, is a Western Hindi language. Along with Awadhi (a variety of Eastern Hindi), it was one of the two predominant ...

and Rajasthani dialects of

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...

), ''Ram Ram/(Jai) Sita Ram ji'' (

Awadhi Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name ''Awadh'' is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city ...

and

Bhojpuri Bhojpuri (;Bhojpuri entry, Oxford Dictionaries
, Oxford U ...

dialects of

and other Bihari dialects), and ''

Sat Sri Akal Sat Sri Akaal (Gurumukhi ਸਤਿ ਸ੍ਰੀ ਅਕਾਲ, ) is a '' Jaikara'' (lit. ''Call of Victory'') now used, often, as a greeting by Punjabi Sikhs. It is the second half of the ''Sikh Clarion call'', given by the Tenth guru, Guru Gobind ...

'' (

Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a British Th ...

; used by followers of

), ''

As-salamu alaykum As-salamu alaykum ( ar, ٱلسَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ, , ), also ''Salamun Alaykum'' is a greeting in Arabic that means 'Peace be upon you'. The (, meaning 'peace') has become a religious salutation for Muslims worldwide when gre ...

'' (

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...

), '' Jai Jinendra'' (a common greeting used by followers of

), '' Jai Bhim'' (used by followers of

Ambedkarism Ambedkarism is called as the teaching, ideology or philosophy of B.R. Ambedkar, an Indian econonist, polymath, barrister, social reformer, human-rights advocate, and the architect of Indian Constitution. Ambedkarism includes the principles of Nava ...

), ''Namo Buddhay'' (used by followers of

), ''Allah Abho'' (used by followers of the

), '' Shalom aleichem'' (used by followers of

), ''Hamazor Hama Ashobed'' (used by followers of

), ''Sahebji'' ( Persian and

; used by the

Parsi Parsis () or Parsees are an ethnoreligious group of the Indian subcontinent adhering to Zoroastrianism. They are descended from Persians who migrated to Medieval India during and after the Arab conquest of Iran (part of the early Muslim conq ...

people), ''Dorood'' ( Persian and

; used by the Irani people), '' Om Namah Shivaya/Jai Bholenath'' Jaidev (used in Dogri and

Kashmiri Kashmiri may refer to: * People or things related to the Kashmir Valley or the broader region of Kashmir * Kashmiris, an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley * Kashmiri language, their language People with the name * Kashmiri Saikia Baruah ...

, also used in the city of

Varanasi Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world. * * * * The city has a syncretic t ...

), ''Jai Ambe Maa/Jai Mata di'' (used in

Eastern India East India is a List of regions of India, region of India consisting of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal and also the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region roughly corresponds to the histo ...

), ''Jai Ganapati Bapa'' (used in Marathi and Konkani), etc. These traditional forms of greeting may be absent in the world of business and in India's urban environment, where a handshake is a common form of greeting.

Animals

The varied and rich

wildlife of India India is home to a large variety of wildlife. It is a biodiversity hotspot with its various ecosystems ranging from the Himalayas in the north to the evergreen rain forests in the south, the sands of the west to the marshy mangroves of the ea ...

has a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is

Jungle A jungle is land covered with dense forest and tangled vegetation, usually in tropical climates. Application of the term has varied greatly during the past recent century. Etymology The word ''jungle'' originates from the Sanskrit word ''ja� ...

which was adopted by Britons living in India to the English language. The word has been also made famous in ''

The Jungle Book ''The Jungle Book'' (1894) is a collection of stories by the English author Rudyard Kipling. Most of the characters are animals such as Shere Khan the tiger and Baloo the bear, though a principal character is the boy or "man-cub" Mowgli, w ...

'' by

Rudyard Kipling Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( ; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936)'' The Times'', (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12. was an English novelist, short-story writer, poet, and journalist. He was born in British India, which inspired much of his work. ...

. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the ''

Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' (IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, sa, पञ्चतन्त्र, "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story ...

'' and the '' Jataka tales''. In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ''

ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

'' (non-violence),

mother goddess A mother goddess is a goddess who represents a personified deification of motherhood, fertility goddess, fertility, creation, destruction, or the earth goddess who embodies the bounty of the earth or nature. When equated with the earth or t ...

and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream Hindu and Jain society. The Article 48 of the

Constitution of India The Constitution of India ( IAST: ) is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental ...

is one of the Directive Principles which directs that the state shall endeavor to prohibit slaughtering and smuggling of

cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ...

, calves and other milch and draught cattle. As of January 2012, cow remains a divisive and controversial topic in India. Several states of India have passed laws to protect cows, while many states have no restrictions on the production and consumption of beef. Some groups oppose the butchering of cows, while other secular groups argue that what kind of meat one eats ought to be a matter of personal choice in a democracy.

Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the second ...

enacted a law in January 2012, namely the Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan) Act, which makes cow slaughter a serious offence. Gujarat, a western state of India, has the Animal Preservation Act, enacted in October 2011, that prohibits the killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. In contrast, Assam and Andhra Pradesh allow butchering of cattle with a fit-for-slaughter certificate. In the states of West Bengal and Kerala, consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Contrary to stereotypes, a sizeable number of Hindus eat beef, and many argue that their scriptures, such as Vedic and Upanishadic texts do not prohibit its consumption. In southern Indian state Kerala, for instance, beef accounts for nearly half of all meat consumed by all communities, including Hindus. Sociologists theorise that the widespread consumption of cow meat in India is because it is a far cheaper source of animal protein for the poor than mutton or chicken, which retail at double the price. For these reasons, India's beef consumption post-independence in 1947 has witnessed a much faster growth than any other kind of meat; currently, India is one of the five largest producers and consumers of cattle livestock meat in the world. A beef ban has been made in Maharashtra and other states as of 2015. While states such as Madhya Pradesh are passing local laws to prevent cruelty to cows, other Indians are arguing "If the real objective is to prevent cruelty to animals, then why single out the cows when hundreds of other animals are maltreated?"

Cuisine

Indian food is as diverse as India. Indian cuisines use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of food preparation styles, cooking techniques, and culinary presentations. From salads to sauces, from vegetarian to meat, from spices to sensuous, from bread to desserts, Indian cuisine is invariably complex. Harold McGee, a favourite of many Michelin-starred chefs, writes "for sheer inventiveness with the milk itself as the primary ingredient, no country on earth can match India." New Punjab Club food spread

According to

Sanjeev Kapoor {{Infobox chef , name = Sanjeev Kapoor , image = Sanjeev Kapoor in 2016.jpg , image_size = , caption = Sanjeev Kapoor in 2016 , birth_date = {{Birth date and age, df=yes, 1964, 4, 10 , birth_place = Amb ...

, a member of Singapore Airlines' International Culinary Panel, Indian food has long been an expression of world cuisine. Kapoor claims, "if you looked back in India's history and study the food that our ancestors ate, you will notice how much attention was paid to the planning and cooking of a meal. Great thought was given to the texture and taste of each dish." One such historical record is , ( sa, मानसोल्लास, The Delight of Mind), written in the 12th century. The book describes the need to change cuisine and food with seasons, various methods of cooking, the best blend of flavours, the feel of various foods, planning and style of dining amongst other things. India is known for its love of food and spices. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the local produce, cultural diversity, and varied demographics of the country. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into five categories –

northern Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a r ...

southern Southern may refer to: Businesses * China Southern Airlines, airline based in Guangzhou, China * Southern Airways, defunct US airline * Southern Air, air cargo transportation company based in Norwalk, Connecticut, US * Southern Airways Express, M ...

, eastern, western, and northeastern. The diversity of Indian cuisine is characterised by the differing use of many

spices A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices are ...

and herbs, a wide assortment of recipes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is

vegetarian Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetariani ...

, many Indian dishes also include meats like chicken, mutton, beef (both cow and buffalo), pork and fish, egg and other seafood. Fish-based cuisines are common in eastern states of India, particularly

and the southern states of

and Tamil Nadu. Chum chums

Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of certain food preparations and are used to enhance the flavour of a dish and create unique flavours and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Central Asians, Arabs, Mughal people, Mughals, and Colonialism in India, European colonists. Sweets are also very popular among Indians, particularly in

where both Bengali Hindus and Bengali Muslims distribute sweets to mark joyous occasions.

Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe. In most Indian restaurants outside India, the menu does not do justice to the enormous variety of Indian cuisine available – the most common cuisine served on the menu would be Punjabi cuisine (chicken tikka masala is a very popular dish in the United Kingdom). There do exist some restaurants serving cuisines from other regions of India, although these are few and far between. Historically, Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice trade between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set out to find new trade routes with India leading to the ''Age of Discovery''. The popularity of ''curry'', which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the "pan-Asian" dish. Regional Indian cuisine continues to evolve. A fusion of East Asian and Western cooking methods with traditional cuisines, along with regional adaptations of fast food are prominent in major Indian cities. Sadhya DSW

The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh and

consists of the Telugu cuisine, of the Telugu people as well as Hyderabadi cuisine (also known as Nizami cuisine), of the Hyderabadi Muslims, Hyderabadi Muslim community. Hyderabadi cuisine, Hyderabadi food is based heavily on non-vegetarian ingredients while, Telugu cuisine, Telugu food is a mix of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian ingredients. Telugu food is rich in spices and chillies are abundantly used. The food also generally tends to be more on the tangy side with tamarind and lime juice both used liberally as souring agents. Rice is the staple food of Telugu people. Starch is consumed with a variety of curries and lentil soups or broths. Vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods are both popular. Hyderabadi cuisine includes popular delicacies such as ''Hyderabadi Biryani, Biryani'', ''Hyderabadi Haleem, Haleem'', ''Baghara baingan'' and ''Kheema,'' while Hyderabadi day to day dishes see some commonalities with Telanganite Telugu food, with its use of tamarind, rice, and lentils, along with meat. Yogurt is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering Piquance, spiciness.

Clothing

Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced by local culture, geography, climate, and rural/urban settings. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari and ''mekhela sador'' for women and dhoti or lungi or panche (in Kannada) for men. Stitched clothes are also popular such as churidar or ''salwar-kameez'' for women, with ''dupatta'' (long scarf) thrown over shoulder completing the outfit. The salwar is often loose fitting, while churidar is a tighter cut. The dastar, a headgear worn by Sikhs is common in Punjab. Indian women perfect their sense of charm and fashion with makeup and ornaments. Bindi (decoration), Bindi, mehendi, earrings, bangles and other jewelry are common. On special occasions, such as marriage ceremonies and festivals, women may wear cheerful colours with various ornaments made with gold, silver or other regional stones and gems. Bindi (decoration), Bindi is often an essential part of a Hindu woman's make up. Worn on their forehead, some consider the ''bindi'' as an auspicious mark. Traditionally, the red bindi was worn only by married Hindu women, and coloured bindi was worn by single women, but now all colours and glitter have become a part of women's fashion. Some women wear sindoor – a traditional red or orange-red powder (vermilion) in the parting of their hair (locally called ''mang''). Sindoor is the traditional mark of a married woman for Hindus. Single Hindu women do not wear ''sindoor''; neither do over 1 million Indian women from religions other than Hindu and agnostics/atheists who may be married. The make up and clothing styles differ regionally between the Hindu groups, and also by climate or religion, with Christians preferring Western and Muslim preferring the Arabic styles. For men, stitched versions include kurta-pajama, pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts. In urban and semi-urban centres, men and women of all religious backgrounds, can often be seen in jeans, trousers, shirts, suits, kurtas and variety of other fashions. File:Styles of Sari.jpg, Illustration of different styles of sari, gagra choli and shalwar kameez worn by women in India File:Didarganj Yakshi statue in the Bihar Museum.jpg, The Didarganj Yakshi (3rd century BCE) depicting the ''dhoti wrap'' File:Rajput Sherwani 2014-04-23 04-27.JPG, ''Achkan'' sherwani and ''churidar'' (lower body) worn by Arvind Singh Mewar and his kin during a

in Rajasthan, India File:DWIJEN (43).jpg, An Assamese girl wearing mekhela sador, 2010 and Bindi (decoration), bindi on the centre of her forehead. File:Pakhi Hegde at Smt Netaji film launch (6).jpg, Indian actress Pakkhi Hegde wearing a string-sleeve choli and sari File:Shriya Saran at the launch of T P Aggarwal's trade magazine 'Blockbuster' 10.jpg, Indian actress Shriya Saran in woman's kameez with dupatta draped over the neck and decorative Bindi (decoration), bindi on the centre of her forehead File:Priyanka on the ramp for Mijwan fashion show.jpg, Indian actress Priyanka Chopra wearing a lehenga and ghagra choli, Navel in popular culture#Indian culture, exposing the midriff and navel, which has long been a fashion with Indian women in popular cultureBanerjee, Mukulika & Miller, Daniel (2003) ''The Sari''. Oxford; New York: Berg File:Its relatives from sikh community weddings.png, Sikh man and women wearing Turban File:Traditional Hajong Argon and Pathin.jpg, Traditional Hajong people, Hajong Pathin and Argon (clothing), Argon from Northeast India File:Subhas Chandra Bose in traditional formal clothing.jpg, Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose wearing India's traditional costume Dhoti, dhuti and Kurta, panjabi. File:Jawaharlal Nehru on horseback in Achkan and chooridar.jpg, J. L. Nehru wearing Nehru jacket and Chooridar. File:Maharani Ourmilla Of Jubbal.jpg, Gayatri Devi, Maharani Gayatri Devi, in Nivi sari. The Nivi style drape was created during the British Raj, colonial era of History of India, Indian history in order to create a fashion style which would conform to the Victorian era, Victorian-era sensibilities File:Varma Raja Ravi-Lady with Veena.jpg, Malayali lady wearing Mundum neriyatum. Painted by Raja Ravi Varma, c. 1900. File:Nocte Couple.jpg, Nocte Naga people, Naga couple in their traditional attire

Languages and literature

History

The Rigveda, Rigvedic

is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan languages, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European languages. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far-reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian, and other Indo-European languages.

, one of India's major classical language, descends from Proto-Dravidian language, Proto-Dravidian languages spoken around the third millennium BCE in peninsular India. The earliest inscriptions of Tamil have been found on pottery dating back to 500 BC. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand years: "... the most acceptable periodisation which has so far been suggested for the development of Tamil writing seems to me to be that of A Chidambaranatha Chettiar (1907–1967): 1. Sangam Literature – 200BC to AD 200; 2. Post Sangam literature – AD 200 – AD 600; 3. Early Medieval literature – AD 600 to AD 1200; 4. Later Medieval literature – AD 1200 to AD 1800; 5. Pre-Modern literature – AD 1800 to 1900" and the earliest Epigraphy, epigraphic records found date from around the 3rd century BCE. The evolution of language within India may be distinguished over three periods: old, middle and modern Indo-Aryan. The classical form of old Indo-Aryan was ''Sanskrit'' meaning polished, cultivated and correct, in distinction to ''Prakrit'' – the practical language of the migrating masses evolving without concern to proper pronunciation or grammar, the structure of language changing as those masses mingled, settled new lands and adopted words from people of other native languages. ''Prakrita'' became middle Indo-Aryan leading to ''Pali'' (the language of early Buddhists and Ashoka era in 200–300 BCE), ''Prakrit'' (the language of Jain philosophers) and ''Apabhramsa'' (the language blend at the final stage of middle Indo-Aryan). It is ''Apabhramsa'', scholars claim, that flowered into Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, and many other languages now in use in India's north, east and west. All of these Indian languages have roots and structures similar to Sanskrit, to each other and to other Indo-European languages. Thus we have in India three thousand years of continuous linguistic history recorded and preserved in literary documents. This enables scholars to follow language evolution and observe how, by changes hardly noticeable from generation to generation, an original language alters into descendant languages that are now barely recognisable as the same. Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages and literature of India.

, India's most spoken language, is a "Sanskritised register" of the Delhi dialect. In addition, all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Munda languages and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (''tatsama'' words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (''tadbhava'' words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages,Chatterji as cited in and the literary forms of (Dravidian)

, Malayalam and Kannada language, Kannada.

, although to a slightly smaller extent, has also been significantly influenced by Sanskrit. Part of the List of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, the Bengali language arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages and its roots are traced to the 5th-century BCE Ardhamagadhi language. Another major Classical Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada literature, Old Kannada flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Pre-old Kannada (or ''Purava Hazhe-Gannada'') was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and Kadamba Dynasty, Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.Pai and Narasimhachar in Bhat (1993), p103 The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri archaeological site, Brahmagiri (dated 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.The word ''Isila'' found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to ''shoot an arrow'' is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BCE (Dr. D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)

is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam. It is also one of the 22 official languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Odia's importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X, dated to the 2nd century BC. The language with the largest number of speakers in India is

and its various dialects. Early forms of present-day Hindustani language, Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan ''apabhraṃśa'' vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. During the time of Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent, Islamic rule in parts of India, it became influenced by Persian. The Persian influence led to the development of

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was him ...

, pioneered by Rabindranath Tagore, Mulk Raj Anand and Premchand, Munshi Premchand. In addition to Indo-European and Dravidian languages, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages are in use in India. The 2011 Linguistic Survey of India states that India has over 780 languages and 66 different scripts, with its state of

with 90 languages.

Epics

The Mahabharata, Mahābhārata and the Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa are the oldest preserved and well-known epics of India. Versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (') and 500 cantos ('), and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation or Avatar of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the Rakshasa, demon king of Lanka, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the role of dharma, dhárma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life. The earliest parts of the Mahabharata text date to 400 BCBrockington (1998, p. 26) and is estimated to have reached its final form by the early Gupta Empire, Gupta period (c. 4th century AD). Other regional variations of these, as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Ramavataram, Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana, Kannada ''Pampa Bharata'', Hindi ''Ramacharitamanasa'', and Malayalam ''Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan, Adhyathmaramayanam''. In addition to these two great Indian epics, there are The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature composed in classical Tamil language — ''Manimegalai'', ''Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi'', ''Silappadikaram'', ''Valayapathi'' and ''Kundalakesi''. File:Kurukshetra.jpg, A manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahābhārata File:Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53.jpg, The ''Battle at Lanka, Ramayana'' by Sahibdin. It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left, blue figure) fighting Ravana—the demon-king of the Lanka—to save Rama's kidnapped wife, Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trishira, Trisiras, in the bottom left. Trisiras is beheaded by Hanuman, the monkey-companion of Rama. File:Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana, an album painting on paper, c1820.jpg, Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana from Ramavataram, an album painting on paper from Tamil Nadu, c. 1820 CE File:Puhar-ILango.jpg, Ilango Adigal is the author of ''Silappatikaram,'' one of the The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature, five great epics of Tamil literature. File:Kalighat Krishna killing Vakasura.jpg, Krishna killing Bakasura, still of ''Harivamsa'' from Mahabharata.

Performing arts

Dance

India has had a long romance with the art of dance. The Hindu Sanskrit texts ''Natya Shastra'' (Science of Dance) and ''Abhinaya Darpana'' (Mirror of Gesture) are estimated to be from 200 BCE to early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. The Indian art of dance as taught in these ancient books, according to Ragini Devi, is the expression of inner beauty and the divine in man. It is a deliberate art, nothing is left to chance, each gesture seeks to communicate the ideas, each facial expression the emotions. Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02

Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02

Dance of India, Indian dance includes eight classical dance forms, many in narrative forms with Hindu mythology, mythological elements. The eight classical forms accorded Indian classical dance, classical dance status by India's ''Sangeet Natak Academi, National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama'' are: ''bharatanatyam'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''kathak'' of

, ''kathakali'' and ''mohiniattam'' of

, ''kuchipudi'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''yakshagana'' of

, ''Manipuri dance, manipuri'' of

, ''odissi (orissi)'' of the state of Odisha and the ''Sattriya dance, sattriya'' of

In addition to the formal arts of dance, Indian regions have a strong free form, folksy dance tradition. Some of the Indian folk dance, folk dances include the ''Bhangra (dance), bhangra'' of Punjab region, Punjab; the ''bihu'' of

; the zeliang of

; the Jhumair, Domkach, Chhau dance, chhau of Jharkhand; the Ghumura Dance, Gotipua, Mahari dance and Dalkhai of Odisha; the , and of

; the jat-jatin, nat-natin and saturi of

; the ''ghoomar'' of Rajasthan and Haryana; the ''dandiya'' and ''garba (dance), garba'' of

; the kolattam of Andhra Pradesh and

; the ''yakshagana'' of

; ''lavani'' of

; ''Dekhnni'' of Goa. Recent developments include adoption of international dance forms particularly in the urban centres of India, and the extension of Indian classical dance arts by the Kerala Christian community, to tell stories from the Bible. Saila and Karma dance by Gonds

Bhavai is a genre of folk dance popular in Rajasthan

Cham dance during Dosmoche festival in Leh Palace DSCN5692 1

Drama

File:Kathakali -Play with Kaurava.jpg, Kathakali one of the classical theatre forms from Kerala, India File:Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style.jpg, ''Rasa lila'' theatrical performance in Manipuri dance, Manipuri dance style File:Bhavai Artist.jpg, Bhavai Artist,

File:PSI India street play.jpg, A street play (''nukkad natak'') in Dharavi slums in Mumbai. File:Akrura1.jpg, Yakshagana An Ancient dance drama of Tulunadu. File:Bharat-s-tiwari-photography-IMG 6635 June 11, 2017.jpg, Koodiyattam performer ''Kapila Venu'' File:A still from play 'Nati Binodoni'.jpg, A still from play 'Nati Binodoni', Bengali Jatra Theatre. Jatra (theatre), Jatra is a popular folk-theatre form of Bengali theatre, Bengali and Odia Theatre. Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kālidāsa, Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older dramas, following those of Bhasa. Kutiyattam of Kerala, is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to have originated around the beginning of the

, and is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra. Nātyāchārya Māni Mādhava Chākyār is credited for reviving the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa (aesthetics), Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like ''Abhijñānaśākuntala'', ''Vikramorvaśīya'' and ''Mālavikāgnimitra''; Bhasa's ''Swapnavāsavadatta'' and ''Pancharātra''; Harsha's ''Nagananda''.

Puppetry

has a long tradition of puppetry. In the ancient Indian epic ''Mahabharata'' there are references to puppets. Kathputli (puppetry), Kathputli, a form of string puppet performance native to Rajasthan, is notable and there are many Indian ventriloquists and puppeteers. The first Indian ventriloquist, Professor Y. K. Padhye, introduced this form of puppetry to India in the 1920s and his son, Ramdas Padhye, subsequently popularised ventriloquism and puppetry. Almost all types of puppets are found in India. *;String puppets India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes with jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are therefore the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished. The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as ''Kathputli (puppetry), Kathputli''. Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. The string puppets of Orissa are known as ''Sakhi kandhei, Kundhei''. The string puppets of

are called ''Gombeyatta''. Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as ''Bommalattam'', combine the techniques of rod and string puppets. *;Rod puppets Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but are often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in

and Orissa. The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as ''Putul Nautch''. They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. The traditional rod puppet of

is known as ''Yampuri''. *;Glove puppets Glove puppets are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of either papier mâché, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a long, flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls, but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of producing a wide range of movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by the human hand, the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb in the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive. The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In

, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays a ''dholak'' (hand drum) with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogue, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere. In

, the traditional glove puppet play is called ''Pavakoothu''.

Shadow play

Shadow puppets are an ancient part of India's culture and art, particularly regionally as the ''keelu bomme'' and ''Tholu bommalata'' of Andhra Pradesh, the ''Togalu gombeyaata'' in

, the ''charma bahuli natya'' in

, the ''Ravana chhaya'' in Odisha, the ''Tholpavakoothu'' in

and the ''thol bommalatta'' in Tamil Nadu. Shadow puppet play is also found in pictorial traditions in India, such as temple mural painting, loose-leaf folio paintings, and the narrative paintings. Dance forms such as the Chhau dance, Chhau of Odisha literally mean "shadow". The shadow theatre dance drama theatre are usually performed on platform stages attached to Hindu temples, and in some regions these are called ''Koothu Madams'' or ''Koothambalams''. In many regions, the puppet drama play is performed by itinerant artist families on temporary stages during major temple festivals. Legends from the Hindu epics ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' dominate their repertoire. However, the details and the stories vary regionally. During the 19th century and early parts of the 20th century of the colonial era, Indologists believed that shadow puppet plays had become extinct in India, though mentioned in its ancient Sanskrit texts. In the 1930s and thereafter, states Stuart Blackburn, these fears of its extinction were found to be false as evidence emerged that shadow puppetry had remained a vigorous rural tradition in central Kerala mountains, most of Karnataka, northern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Odisha and southern Maharashtra. The Marathi people, particularly of low caste, had preserved and vigorously performed the legends of Hindu epics as a folk tradition. The importance of Marathi artists is evidenced, states Blackburn, from the puppeteers speaking Marathi as their mother tongue in many non-Marathi speaking states of India. According to Beth Osnes, the ''tholu bommalata'' shadow puppet theatre dates back to the 3rd century BCE, and has attracted patronage ever since. The puppets used in a ''tholu bommalata'' performance, states Phyllis Dircks, are "translucent, lusciously multicolored leather figures four to five feet tall, and feature one or two articulated arms". The process of making the puppets is an elaborate ritual, where the artist families in India pray, go into seclusion, produce the required art work, then celebrate the "metaphorical birth of a puppet" with flowers and incense. The ''tholu pava koothu'' of Kerala uses leather puppets whose images are projected on a backlit screen. The shadows are used to creatively express characters and stories in the ''Ramayana''. A complete performance of the epic can take forty-one nights, while an abridged performance lasts as few as seven days. One feature of the ''tholu pava koothu'' show is that it is a team performance of puppeteers, while other shadow plays such as the ''wayang'' of Indonesia are performed by a single puppeteer for the same ''Ramayana'' story. There are regional differences within India in the puppet arts. For example, women play a major role in shadow play theatre in most parts of India, except in Kerala and Maharashtra. Almost everywhere, except Odisha, the puppets are made from tanned deer skin, painted and articulated. Translucent leather puppets are typical in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while opaque puppets are typical in Kerala and Odisha. The artist troupes typically carry over a hundred puppets for their performance in rural India.

Music

Music is an integral part of India's culture. Natya Shastra, Natyasastra, a 2000-year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify musical instruments. One of these ancient Indian systems classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air. According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a 3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in the Sankarjang, highlands of Odisha. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the ''Samaveda'' (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic Shrauta, Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns. It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as ''Krusht'', ''Pratham'', ''Dwitiya'', ''Tritiya'', ''Chaturth'', ''Mandra'' and ''Atiswār''. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and other Hindu texts, heavily influenced Indian classical music, India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic music, Carnatic and Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music systems are based on the melodic base (known as raga, Rāga), sung to a rhythmic cycle (known as Tala (music), Tāla); these principles were refined in the Natyashastra, nātyaśāstra (200 BC) and the dattilam (300 AD). The current music of India includes multiple varieties of religious, classical, folk music, folk, filmi, rock and pop music and dance. The appeal of traditional classical music and dance is on the rapid decline, especially among the younger generation. Prominent contemporary Indian musical forms included filmi and Indipop. Filmi refers to the wide range of music written and performed for mainstream Indian cinema, primarily Bollywood, and accounts for more than 70 percent of all music sales in the country. Indipop is one of the most popular contemporary styles of Indian music which is either a fusion of Indian folk music, Indian folk, classical or Sufi music with Western musical traditions.

Visual arts

Painting

File:Bhimbetka Cave Paintings.jpg, A Prehistoric cave painting in Bhimbetka rock shelters. File:Meister des Mahâjanaka Jâtaka 001.jpg, The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves File:Indischer Maler um 1650 (I) 001.jpg, A Kangra painting, Kangra Style Painting of Radha, the companion of the Hindu god Krishna File:Indischer Maler um 1710 001.jpg, Hindu iconography shown in Pattachitra File:Raja Ravi Varma - Mahabharata - Shakuntala.jpg, Raja Ravi Varma's ''Shakuntala (Raja Ravi Varma), Shakuntala'' (1870); oil on canvas File:Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore.jpg, Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, and a pioneer of the Bengal School of Art File:Victory of Meghanada by RRV.jpg, A painting of Meghanada after his victory over Indra by Raja Ravi Varma File:Manohar. Emperor Jahangir Weighs Prince Khurram. Page from Tuzuk-i Jahangiri. 1610-1615, British Museum, London.jpg, ''Emperor Jahangir weighs Prince Shah Jahan, Khurram'' by Manohar Das, 1610–15, from Jahangir's own copy of the ''Tuzk-e-Jahangiri''. The names of the main figures are noted on their clothes, and the artist shown at bottom. File:Abanindranath Tagore - The Passing of Shah Jahan, 1902.jpg, ''The Passing of Shah Jahan'' by Abanindranath Tagore. File:Flute Player by Shanu Lahiri.jpg, A Modern art named ''Flute Player'' by Shanu Lahiri Cave paintings from Ajanta Caves, Ajanta, Bagh Caves, Bagh, Ellora Caves, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured floor design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of the classical painters from medieval India. Pattachitra, Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting and Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B. VenkatappaKamath (2003), p. 283 are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery in

, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.

Sculpture

File:MET DP702288.jpg, Woman riding two bulls (bronze), from Kausambi, c. 2000-1750 BCE FIle:Sarnath_capital.jpg, The Lion Capital of Asoka, National Emblem of India, the most famous example of Mauryan art. File:Mumbai 03-2016 94 Kanheri Caves.jpg, 5th-century Buddha statue in Kanheri caves,

File:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg, The Colossal 6 metres (20 ft) high trimurti sculpture at the Elephanta Caves File:Bahubali Shravana Belagola.jpg, The iconic 57 ft high monolithic Gommateshwara statue, Statue of Gommateshwara,

, 10th Century File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg, Bhutesvara Yakshis, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE File:Pretty sculptures.jpg, Intricately carved sculptures on the exterior of one of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments File:Lalita statue.jpg, Pala Empire, Pala basalt statue of Tripura Sundari, Lalita flanked by Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya, 11th century File:Thiruvalluvar Statue at Kanyakumari 02.jpg, The Thiruvalluvar Statue, or the Valluvar Statue, is a 133-feet (40.6 m) tall stone sculpture of the Tamil poet and philosopher Tiruvalluvar File:Statue of Unity.jpg, The Statue of Unity is the world's List of tallest statues, tallest statue, with a height of 182 metres (597 feet), located in the state of

.It depicts Indian statesman and Indian independence movement, independence activist Vallabhbhai Patel (1875–1950), who was the first Deputy Prime Minister of India, deputy prime minister and Minister of Home Affairs (India), home minister of independent India. It was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, on 31 October 2018. The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilisation, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora Caves, Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock. Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculptures throughout Southeast Central and East Asia.

Architecture

File:Dholavira-1.jpg, North Gate of Dholavira, an Indus valley civilisation archeological site built around the 3rd Millennium B.C in modern day

. File:Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg, Great Stupa of Sanchi,

built in the 3rd century BCE. File:Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg, Kailasa temple, Ellora, Kailasa temple is one of the largest Indian rock-cut architecture, rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora,

. File:Big Temple-Temple.jpg, The granite Gopuram, tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I. File:Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14465165685).jpg, Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura, Chennakesava Temple is a model example of the Hoysala architecture. File:Chaturbhuj Temple, Orchha.jpg, Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha), Chaturbhuj Temple at Orchha, is noted for having one of the List of tallest Gopurams#Tallest Vimana, tallest Vimana among Hindu temples standing at 344 feet. It was the tallest structure in the Indian subcontinent from 1558 CE to 1970 CE. File:Shore Temple -Mamallapuram -Tamil Nadu -N-TN-C55.jpg, The rock-cut Shore Temple of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, temples in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, 700–728. Showing the typical Dravidian architecture, ''dravida'' form of tower. File:Taj-Mahal.jpg, Considered to be an "unrivalled architectural wonder", the Taj Mahal in Agra is a prime example of Indo-Islamic architecture. One of the world's Wonders of the World, seven wonders. File:Tawang Monastery (Tibetan Buddhist).jpg, Tawang Monastery in

, was built in the 1600s and is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. File:Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata.jpg, Victoria Memorial, Kolkata File:Thakur Dalan of Itachuna Rajbari at Khanyan.jpg, Thakur Dalan of Itachuna, Itachuna Rajbari, Khanyan File:Hawa Mahal Final 1.jpg, Hawa Mahal in Jaipur city, Rajasthan File:Patwon ki Haveli Jaisalmer.jpg, Patwon ki Haveli, Jaisalmer. Rows of sandstone haveli in Rajasthan File:MEENAKSHI TEMPLE-VIEW FROM WEST SIDE TOWER.jpg, Dravidian style in form of Tamil architecture of Meenakshi Temple File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg, The Charminar, built in the 16th century by the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Golconda Sultanate. File:Amer Fort Entrance.jpg, Pietra Dura and Jaali works on Amer Fort Entrance, Jaipur File:Ralong Monastry (36).jpg, Ralang Monastery, Sikkim File:Humayun's tomb by Shagil Kannur 4.jpg, Humayun's Tomb,

, the first fully developed Mughal Empire, Mughal imperial tomb, 1569–70 CE File:Chhatrapati_shivaji_terminus,_esterno_01.jpg, Façade of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,

File:I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra.jpg, Pachin Kari or Pietra Dura on Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg, The Stone Chariot in Hampi File:Rashtrapati Niwas, Shimla.jpg, The Viceregal Lodge, now Rashtrapati Niwas, in Shimla designed by Henry Irwin in the Jacobethan style and built in the late 19th century. File:Fort Dansborg.JPG, Fort Dansborg, built by the 17th century Danish admiral Ove Gjedde, reminiscences of Danish India, Tharangambadi, Tamil Nadu File:LotusDelhi.jpg, Lotus Temple in New Delhi Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley civilisation (2600–1900 BC) which is characterised by well-planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns. During the period of the Mauryan and Gupta Empire, Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta Caves, Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Karnataka, Belur, the Hoysaleswara temple, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura, Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur built by Raja Raja Chola, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple (Srirangam), Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Gautama Buddha, Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Rajput kingdoms oversaw the construction of Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Khajuraho Temple Complex, Chittor Fort and Chaturbhuj Temple (Orchha), Chaturbhuj Temple, etc. during their reign. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings. The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonise the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Qi, Chi/Qi, Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed. With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion, creating the Indo-Islamic architecture, Indo-Islamic style of architecture. The Qutb Minar complex, Qutb complex, a group of monuments constructed by successive sultanas of the Delhi Sultanate is one of the earliest examples. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Red Fort of Delhi and Charminar are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical symbols of India. British colonial rule in India saw the development of Indo-Saracenic style and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The Victoria Memorial (India), Victoria Memorial and the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus are notable examples. Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa, temple spire or shikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also sometimes called a Gopuram, vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted for its intricacy and majesty. Contemporary Architecture of India, Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact and densely populated. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings. Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple, Golden Pagoda, Namsai, Golden Pagoda and Akshardham (Delhi), Akshardham, and the various modern urban developments of India like Bhubaneswar and Chandigarh, are notable.

Sports and martial arts

Sports

Field hockey was considered to be the national game of India, but this has been recently denied by the Government of India, clarifying on a Right to Information Act, Right to Information Act (RTI) filed that India has not declared any sport as the national game. At a time when it was especially popular, the India men's national field hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup, Men's Hockey World Cup, and 8 Gold medal, gold, 1 Silver medal, silver, and 2 Bronze medal, bronze medals at the Olympic Games. However, field hockey in India no longer has the following that it once did. Cricket is considered the most popular sport in India. The India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, the 2011 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy, Challenger Series. In addition, Board of Control for Cricket in India, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition. association football, Football is popular in the Indian state of Kerala also considered as home of football in India.The city of Kolkata is the home to the largest stadium in

, and the second List of stadiums by capacity, largest stadium in the world by capacity, Salt Lake Stadium.National clubs such as Mohun Bagan A.C., Kingfisher East Bengal F.C., Prayag United S.C., and the Mohammedan Sporting Club (Kolkata), Mohammedan Sporting Club. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in northwestern India during the Gupta Empire, Gupta empire,Leibs (2004), p. 92Robinson & Estes (1996), p. 34 where its early form in the 6th century was known as ''chaturanga''. Other games which Traditional games of India, originated in India and continue to remain popular in wide parts of northern India include Kabaddi, Gilli-danda, and Kho kho. Traditional southern Indian games include Snake boat race and Kuttiyum kolum. The modern game of polo is derived from Manipur, India, where the game was known as 'Sagol Kangjei', 'Kanjai-bazee', or 'Pulu'. It was the anglicised form of the last, referring to the wooden ball that was used, which was adopted by the sport in its slow spread to the west. The first polo club was established in the town of Silchar in Assam, India, in 1833. In 2011, India inaugurated a privately built Buddh International Circuit, its first motor racing circuit. The 5.14-kilometre circuit is in Greater Noida,

, near

. The first Formula One Indian Grand Prix event was hosted here in October 2011.

Indian martial arts

One of the best known forms of ancient Indian martial arts is the ''Kalarippayattu'' from

. This ancient fighting style is mentioned in Sangam literature 400 BCE and 600 CE and is regarded as one of the oldest surviving martial arts. In this form of martial arts, various stages of physical training include ayurveda, ayurvedic massage with sesame oil to impart suppleness to the body (''uzichil''); a series of sharp body movements so as to gain control over various parts of the body (''miapayattu''); and, complex sword fighting techniques (''paliyankam'').Silambam, which was developed around 200 AD, traces its roots to the Sangam period in southern India. Silambam is unique among Indian martial arts because it uses complex footwork techniques (''kaaladi''), including a variety of spinning styles. A bamboo staff is used as the main weapon. The ancient Tamil Sangam literature mentions that between 400 BCE and 600 CE, soldiers from southern India received special martial arts training which revolved primarily around the use of spear (''vel''), sword (''val'') and shield (''kedaham''). Among eastern states, ''Paika akhada'' is a martial art found in Odisha. ''Paika akhada'', or ''paika akhara'', roughly translates as "warrior gymnasium" or "warrior school". In ancient times, these were training schools of the peasant militia. Today's Paika akhada teach physical exercises and martial arts in addition to the Paika dance, performance art with rhythmic movements and weapons being hit in time to the drum. It incorporates acrobatic manoeuvres and use of the khanda (sword), khanda (straight sword), pata (sword), patta (guantlet-sword), sticks, and other weapons. In northern India, the ''musti yuddha'' evolved in 1100 AD and focussed on mental, physical and spiritual training. In addition, the ''Dhanur Veda'' tradition was an influential fighting arts style which considered the bow (weapon), bow and the arrow to be the supreme weapons. The ''Dhanur Veda'' was first described in the 5th-century BCE Vishnu Purana, Viṣṇu Purāṇa and is also mentioned in both of the major ancient Indian epics, the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' and ''Mahābhārata''. A distinctive factor of Indian martial arts is the heavy emphasis laid on meditation (''Dhyana in Hinduism, dhyāna'') as a tool to remove fear, doubt and anxiety. Indian martial arts techniques have had a profound impact on other martial arts styles across Asia. The 3rd-century BCE ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.J. R. Svinth (2002)
A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.
''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences'' According to some historical accounts, the South Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma was one of the main founders of the Shaolin Kungfu.

Popular media

Television

Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts. Indian small screen programming started off in the mid-1970s. Only one national channel, the government-owned Doordarshan existed around that time. The year 1982 marked a revolution in TV programming in India, as the New Delhi Asian games became the first to be broadcast on the colour version of TV. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were among the popular television series produced. By the late 1980s television set ownership rapidly increased. Because a single channel was catering to an ever-growing audience, television programming quickly reached saturation. Hence the government started another channel that had part of national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 (later DD Metro). Both channels were broadcast terrestrially. In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, the Indian small screen is a huge industry by itself and offers hundreds of programmes in almost all the regional languages of India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind, some even attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps enjoy popularity among women of all classes. Indian TV also consists of Western channels such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, HBO, and FX (TV channel), FX. In 2016 the list of TV channels in India stood at 892.

Cinema

''Bollywood'' is the informal name given to the popular

-based film, film industry in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in Cinema of West Bengal, Bengali Cinema, Oriya film industry, Assamese, Kannada, Malayalam Cinema, Malayalam, Marathi,

, Punjabi and

) constitute the broader Cinema of India, Indian film industry, whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold. India has produced many cinema-makers like S.S.Rajamouli, Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, J. C. Daniel, K. Viswanath, Ram Gopal Varma, Bapu (director), Bapu, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Nagraj Manjule, Shyam Benegal, Shankar Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer, Mani Ratnam, and K. Balachander (see also: List of Indian film directors, Indian film directors). With the opening up of the economy in recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

Perceptions of Indian culture

India's diversity has inspired many writers to pen their perceptions of the country's culture. These writings paint a complex and often conflicting picture of the culture of India. India is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse countries in the world. The concept of "Indian culture" is a very complex and complicated matter. Indian citizens are divided into various ethnic, religious, caste, linguistic and regional groups, making the realities of "Indianness" extremely complicated. This is why the conception of Indian identity poses certain difficulties and presupposes a series of assumptions about what concisely the expression "Indian" means. However, despite this vast and heterogeneous composition, the creation of some sort of typical or shared Indian culture results from some inherent internal forces (such as a robust Constitution, universal adult franchise, flexible federal structure, secular educational policy, etc.) and from certain historical events (such as Indian Independence Movement, Partition, wars against Pakistan, etc.) Hindu Sanskriti Ankh is an ancient series of books originally from northern part of India highlighting the Bharatiya sanskriti, that is, the culture of India. According to industry consultant Eugene M. Makar, for example, traditional Indian culture is defined by a relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society. This is reinforced, Makar notes, by the way, many believe gods and spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life. Several differences such as religion divide the culture. However, a far more powerful division is Caste system in India, the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations. Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years, claims Makar. In recent years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared. He writes important family relations extend as far as 1 gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth. In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the same roof. The patriarch often resolves family issues. Others have a different perception of Indian culture. According to an interview with C. K. Prahalad, C.K. Prahalad by Des Dearlove, author of many best selling business books, modern India is a country of very diverse cultures with many languages, religions, and traditions. Children begin by coping and learning to accept and assimilate in this diversity. Prahalad – who was born in India and grew up there – claimed, in the interview, that Indians, like everyone else in the world, want to be treated as unique, as individuals, want to express themselves and seek innovation. In another report, Nancy Lockwood of Society for Human Resource Management, the world's largest human resources association with members in 140 countries, writes that in the past two decades or so, social change in India is in dramatic contrast to the expectations from traditional Indian culture. These changes have led to Indian families giving education opportunities to girls, accepting women working outside the home, pursuing a career, and opening the possibility for women to attain managerial roles in corporate India. Lockwood claims that change is slow, yet the scale of cultural change can be sensed from the fact that of India's 397 million workers, 124 million are now women. The issues in India with women empowerment are similar to those elsewhere in the world. According to Amartya Sen, the India born Nobel Laureate in Economics, the culture of modern India is a complex blend of its historical traditions, influences from the effects of colonial rule over centuries and current Western culture – both collaterally and dialectically. Sen observes that external images of India in the West often tend to emphasise the difference – real or imagined – between India and the West. There is a considerable inclination in the Western countries to distance and highlight the differences in Indian culture from the mainstream of Western traditions, rather than discover and show similarities. Western writers and media usually misses, in important ways, crucial aspects of Indian culture and traditions. The deep-seated heterogeneity of Indian traditions, in different parts of India, is neglected in these homogenised descriptions of India. The perceptions of Indian culture, by those who weren't born and raised in India, tend to be one of at least three categories, writes Sen: * Exoticist approach: it concentrates on the wondrous aspects of the culture of India. The focus of this approach of understanding Indian culture is to present the different, the strange and as Hegel put it, "a country that has existed for millennia in the imaginations of the Europeans." * Magisterial approach: it assumes a sense of superiority and guardianship necessary to deal with India, a country that James Mill's historiography thought of as grotesquely primitive culture. While a great many British observers did not agree with such views of India, and some non-British ones did, it is an approach that contributes to some confusion about the culture of India. * Curatorial approach: it attempts to observe, classify and record the diversity of Indian culture in different parts of India. The curators do not look only for the strange, are not weighed by political priorities, and tend to be freer from stereotypes. The curatorial approach, nevertheless, has an inclination to see Indian culture as more special and extraordinarily interesting than it actually may be. The curatorial approach, one inspired by a systematic curiosity for the cultural diversity of India within India, is mostly absent. Susan Bayly, in her book, observes that there is a considerable dispute in India and Orientalist scholars on perceived Indian culture. She acknowledges that many dispute claims of the pervasiveness of caste and strict social hierarchy in modern India. Bayly notes that much of the Indian subcontinent was populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste and strict social hierarchies were of only limited importance in their lifestyles. According to Rosser, an American sociologist, Americans of South Asian origins feel the Western perception of the culture of India has numerous stereotypes. Rosser notes that the discourse in much of the United States about the culture of India is rarely devoted to independent India. People quickly make sweeping and flawed metaphysical assumptions about its religion and culture but are far more circumspect when evaluating civil society and political culture in modern India. It is as if the value of South Asia resides only in its ancient contributions to human knowledge whereas its pathetic attempts to modernise or develop are to be winked at and patronised. Rosser conducted numerous interviews and summarised the comments. The study reports a stark contrast between Western perceptions of the culture of India, versus the direct experience of the interviewed people. For example:

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Bibliography

*Aurobindo, Ghose, Aurobindo. 1998. The foundations of Indian culture. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. * * * * * *Gupta, S. P., & Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute. (2011). The roots of Indian art: A detailed study of the formative period of Indian art and architecture, third and second centuries B.C., Mauryan and late Mauryan. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation. * *
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* Public Broadcasting System, USA (2008)
The story of India – history and culture
* Sharma, Ram Sharan (2005), ''India's Ancient Past'', (Oxford University Press, ). * Bajpai, Shiva (2011).
The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times
'', (Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), ) * A.L. Basham, The Wonder That was India, , Picador London * Auboyer, Jeannine (2002). ''Daily Life in Ancient India, from 200 BC to 700 AD.'' (originally published in French in 1961), Phoenix Press, London * Dalmia, Vasudha and Rashmi Sadana (editors), ''The Cambridge Companion to Modern Indian Culture'', Cambridge University Press, * Grihault, Nicki. ''Culture Smart! India: A Quick Guide to Customs and Etiquette''. . * Henderson, Carol E. (2002).
Culture and Customs of India
''. Greenwood Publishing Group. . * V.S. Naipaul, Naipaul, V.S, ''India: A Million Mutinies Now'', . * Nilakanta Sastri, A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar, Oxford University Press, * Mark Tully, Tully, Mark. ''No Full Stops in India''. * Patra, Avinash (2012),
The Spiritual Life and Culture of India
'', Oxford University Press, England.

External links

Ministry of Culture
Government of India, Links to some cultural sites and available grants for understanding the cultural diversity and society of India
India and World Cultural Heritage
A UNESCO site describing cultural heritage sites of India
India's intangible cultural heritage
Another UNESCO site dedicated to Indian dance and other cultural heritage {{Culture of Asia Arts in India, Arts in India Indian culture, Society of India,

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Perceptions of Indian culture

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