(

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...

, dating from the reign of

Constantine the Great Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...

. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the empire. In

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

sources, the term is translated either as '' strategos'' or as ''

stratelates ''Stratēlatēs'' ( el, στρατηλάτης, "driver/leader of the army") was a Greek term designating a general, which also became an honorary dignity in the Byzantine Empire. In the former sense, it was often applied to military saints, such ...

''.

Establishment and development of the command

The title of ''magister militum'' was created in the 4th century, when the emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the

infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...

, as the ''magister peditum'' ("master of foot"), and one for the more prestigious cavalry, the '' magister equitum'' ("master of horse"). The latter title had existed since republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman ''dictator''. Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: ''magistri peditum'' and ''magistri equitum'' were appointed for every praetorian prefecture (''per Gallias'', ''per Italiam'', ''per Illyricum'', ''per Orientem''), and, in addition, for

Thrace Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...

and, sometimes,

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled ''magister equitum et peditum'' or ''magister utriusque militiae'' ("master of both forces"). As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the ''

comitatenses The comitatenses and later the palatini were the units of the field armies of the late Roman Empire. They were the soldiers that replaced the legionaries, who had formed the backbone of the Roman military since the Marian reforms. Organizati ...

'', which acted as a

rapid reaction force A rapid reaction force is a military or police unit designed to respond in very short time frames to emergencies. When used in reference to police forces such as SWAT teams, the time frame is minutes, while in military applications, such as with t ...

. Other ''magistri'' remained at the immediate disposal of the emperors, and were termed ''in praesenti'' ("in the presence" of the emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply ''magister militum''. In the

Western Roman Empire The Western Roman Empire comprised the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period ...

, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of ''magister utriusque militiae'' often abbreviated MVM. This powerful office was often the

power behind the throne The phrase "power behind the throne" refers to a person or group that informally exercises the real power of a high-ranking office, such as a head of state. In politics, it most commonly refers to a relative, aide, or nominal subordinate of a poli ...

and was held by

Stilicho Flavius Stilicho (; c. 359 – 22 August 408) was a military commander in the Roman army who, for a time, became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire. He was of Vandal origins and married to Serena, the niece of emperor Theodosiu ...

Flavius Aetius Aetius (also spelled Aëtius; ; 390 – 454) was a Roman general and statesman of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. He was a military commander and the most influential man in the Empire for two decades (433454). He managed pol ...

Ricimer Flavius Ricimer ( , ; – 18/19 August 472) was a Romanized Germanic general who effectively ruled the remaining territory of the Western Roman Empire from 461 until his death in 472, with a brief interlude in which he contested power with An ...

, and others. In the east, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of ''magister militum praesentalis''. During the reign of Emperor

Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renova ...

, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the ''magister militum per Armeniam'' in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdiction of the ''magister militum per Orientem'', the ''magister militum per Africam'' in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate ''magister peditum'', and the ''magister militum

Spania Spania ( la, Provincia Spaniae) was a province of the Eastern Roman Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands. It was established by the Emperor Justinian I in an effort to restore the western prov ...

e'' (c. 562). In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the ''magister militum''. In the establishment of the ''exarchates'' of Ravenna and

Carthage Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the cla ...

in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the

Muslim conquest The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He esta ...

in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first '' themata''. Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The isla ...

, whose

Doge A doge ( , ; plural dogi or doges) was an elected lord and head of state in several Italian city-states, notably Venice and Genoa, during the medieval and renaissance periods. Such states are referred to as " crowned republics". Etymology The ...

claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna.

List of ''magistri militum''

Unspecified commands

* 383–385/8:

Flavius Bauto Flavius Bauto (died c. 385) was a Romanised Frank who served as a ''magister militum'' of the Roman Empire and imperial advisor under Valentinian II. Biography When the usurper Magnus Maximus invaded Italy in an attempt to replace Valentinian II ...

, ''magister militum'' under Valentinian IIPLRE I, p. 1114 * 385/8–394: Arbogast, ''magister militum'' under Valentinian II and EugeniusPLRE I, p. 1114 * 383–388: Andragathius * ?–480: Ovida

''Comes et magister utriusque militiae''

* 392–408:

Flavius Stilicho Flavius Stilicho (; c. 359 – 22 August 408) was a military commander in the Roman army who, for a time, became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire. He was of Vandal origins and married to Serena, the niece of emperor Theodosiu ...

* 411–421: Flavius Constantius * 422–425:

Castinus Flavius Castinus held the position of ''patricius'' in the court of Roman Emperor Honorius at the time of the Emperor's death, and most likely for some time before. He also served as consul for the year 424. Career In 422 he fought an unsucce ...

* 425–430: Flavius Constantius Felix * 431–432: Bonifacius * 432–433: Sebastianus * 433–454:

* 455–456: Avitus and

Remistus Remistus (died September 17, 456) was a general of the Western Roman Empire, commander-in-chief of the army under Emperor Avitus. Life Remistus was a Visigoth, as shown by his Germanic name. In 456 Remistus reached a high military rank under Emp ...

* 456: Messianus * 456–472:

* 472–473: Gundobad * 475: Ecdicius Avitus * 475–476:

Orestes In Greek mythology, Orestes or Orestis (; grc-gre, Ὀρέστης ) was the son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, and the brother of Electra. He is the subject of several Ancient Greek plays and of various myths connected with his madness an ...

''Per Gallias''

* 352–355:

Claudius Silvanus Silvanus (died 7 September 355) was a Ancient Rome, Roman general of Franks, Frankish descent, Roman usurper, usurper in Gaul against Emperor Constantius II for 28 days in AD 355. Origin and career Silvanus was born in Gaul, the son of Bonitus ...

* 362–364: Jovinus, ''magister equitum'' under Julian and JovianPLRE I, p. 1113 * ?–419: Gaudentius * 425–430:

* 435–439: Litorius * 452–458: Agrippinus * 458–461:

Aegidius Aegidius (died 464 or 465) was the ruler of the short-lived Kingdom of Soissons from 461 to 464/465AD. Before his ascension, he became ''magister militum per Gallias'' (Master of the Soldiers for Gaul) serving under Majorian, in 458AD. An arden ...

* 461/462: Agrippinus * 462-473:

Gundioc Gondioc (died 473), also called ''Gunderic'' and ''Gundowech'', was a King of the Burgundians, succeeding his putative father Gunther in 436. In 406, the Burgundians under King Gundahar (Gundihar, Guntiar) at Mainz had crossed the Rhine and ...

* ?–472: Bilimer

''Per Hispanias''

* 441–442: Astyrius * 443: Merobaudes * 446: Vitus

''Per Ilyricum''

* ?–350:

Vetranio Vetranio (died c. 356) was a Roman soldier, statesman and co-Emperor, a native of the province of Moesia (in modern Serbia). Life and career Early life Vetranio was born in the Roman province of Moesia to low-born parents, sometime in the ...

, ''magister peditum'' under

Constans Flavius Julius Constans ( 323 – 350), sometimes called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of '' caesar'' from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. After his father's death, he was mad ...

PLRE I, p. 1112 * 361: Iovinus, ''magister equitum'' under JulianPLRE I, p. 1113 * 365–375: Equitius, ''magister utriusquae militiae'' under

Valentinian I Valentinian I ( la, Valentinianus; 32117 November 375), sometimes called Valentinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor, he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces. Val ...

* 395–? Alaric I * 448/9 Agintheus (known from Priscus of Panium to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila). * 468–474:

Julius Nepos Julius Nepos (died 9 May 480), or simply Nepos, ruled as Roman emperor of the West from 24 June 474 to 28 August 475. After losing power in Italy, Nepos retreated to his home province of Dalmatia, from which he continued to claim the western im ...

* 477–479:

Onoulphus Onoulphus, also Onoulf, Unulf and Hunulf (died 493) was a general of the late fifth century of Scirian origin. He served as '' magister militum per Illyricum'' from 477 to 479 as a general of the Eastern Roman Empire, then afterwards was a general f ...

* 479–481: Sabinianus Magnus * 528: Ascum * 529–530/1: Mundus (1st time) * 532–536: Mundus (2nd time) * c. 538:

Justin Justin may refer to: People * Justin (name), including a list of persons with the given name Justin * Justin (historian), a Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire * Justin I (c. 450–527), or ''Flavius Iustinius Augustus'', Eastern Rom ...

* c. 544: Vitalius * c. 550: John * 568–569/70:

Bonus Bonus commonly means: * Bonus, a Commonwealth term for a distribution of profits to a with-profits insurance policy * Bonus payment, an extra payment received as a reward for doing one's job well or as an incentive Bonus may also refer to: Plac ...

* 581–582: Theognis

''Per Orientem''

* c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, ''magister utriusquae militiae'' * 349–359: Ursicinus, ''magister equitum'' under ConstantiusPLRE I, p. 1112 * 359–360: Sabinianus, ''magister equitum'' under

Constantius II Constantius II (Latin: ''Flavius Julius Constantius''; grc-gre, Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic ...

PLRE I, p. 1112 * 363–367: Lupicinus, ''magister equitum'' under Jovian and

Valens Valens ( grc-gre, Ουάλης, Ouálēs; 328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I, who gave him the eastern half of ...

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 371–378: Iulius, ''magister equitum et Peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 383:

Richomeres Flavius Richomeres or Ricomer (died 393) was a Frank who lived in the late 4th century. He took service in the Roman army and made a career as ''comes'', ''magister militum'', and ''consul''. He was an uncle of the general Arbogastes. He is pos ...

, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 383–388: Ellebichus, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 392: Eutherius, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 393–396: Addaeus, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 395/400:

Fravitta Flavius Fravitta (Greek: ; died 404/405) was a leader of the Goths and a top-ranking officer in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire. Fravitta was a member of the Visigoth aristocracy. He was also a pagan, and for this reason he was praised by Eun ...

* 433–446: Anatolius * 447–451: Zeno * 460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar * –469: Flavius Iordanes * 469–471: Zeno * 483–498: Ioannes Scytha * c. 503–505: Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus * 505–506: Pharesmanes * ?516–?518: Hypatius * ?518–529: Diogenianus * 520–525/526: Hypatius * 527: Libelarius * 527–529: Hypatius * 529–531:

Belisarius Belisarius (; el, Βελισάριος; The exact date of his birth is unknown. – 565) was a military commander of the Byzantine Empire under the emperor Justinian I. He was instrumental in the reconquest of much of the Mediterranean terr ...

* 531: Mundus * 532–533: Belisarius * 540: Buzes * 542: Belisarius * 543–544: Martinus * 549–551: Belisarius * 555: Amantius * 556: Valerianus * 569: Zemarchus * 572–573: Marcian * 573: Theodorus * 574: Eusebius * 574/574–577: Justinian * 577–582:

Maurice Maurice may refer to: People * Saint Maurice (died 287), Roman legionary and Christian martyr * Maurice (emperor) or Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (539–602), Byzantine emperor *Maurice (bishop of London) (died 1107), Lord Chancellor and ...

* 582–583: John Mystacon * 584–587/588: Philippicus * 588: Priscus * 588–589: Philippicus * 589–591:

Comentiolus Comentiolus ( el, Κομεντίολος, ''Komentiolos''; died 602) was a prominent Eastern Roman (Byzantine) general at the close of the 6th century during the reign of Emperor Maurice (). He played a major role in Maurice's Balkan campaigns, ...

* 591–603:

Narses , image=Narses.jpg , image_size=250 , caption=Man traditionally identified as Narses, from the mosaic depicting Justinian and his entourage in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna , birth_date=478 or 480 , death_date=566 or 573 (aged 86/95) , allegi ...

* 603–604 Germanus * 604–605 Leontius * 605–610 Domentziolus

''Per Armeniam''

* Sittas *Peter, direct predecessor of John Tzibus *

John Tzibus John Tzibus or Joannes Tzibus ( la, Ioannes Tzibus, Greek: ) was a general of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. He served as the ''magister militum per Armeniam'', replacing the unpopular Peter by 535 at the latest. He founded the port city of Pet ...

(?–541) * Valerian *

Dagisthaeus Dagisthaeus (, ''Dagisthaîos'') was a 6th-century Eastern Roman military commander, probably of Gothic origin, in the service of the emperor Justinian I. Dagisthaeus was possibly a descendant of the Ostrogothic chieftain Dagistheus.* In 548, Da ...

(?–550) *

Bessas Bessas is a commune in the Ardèche department in southern France. Population See also *Communes of the Ardèche department The following is a list of the 335 communes of the Ardèche department of France. The communes cooperate in t ...

(550–554) * Martin *

* Heraclius the Elder (c. 595)

''Per Thracias''

* 377–378: Saturninus, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 377–378:

Traianus Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presid ...

, ''magister peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1114 * 378: Sebastianus, ''magister peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1114 * 380–383: Flavius Saturninus, ''magister peditum'' under Theodosius IPLRE I, p. 1114 * 392–393:

, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 412–414:

* 441: Ioannes the Vandal, ''magister utriusque militiae'' * 464–467/468:

Basiliscus Basiliscus ( grc-gre, Βασιλίσκος, Basilískos; died 476/477) was Eastern Roman emperor from 9 January 475 to August 476. He became in 464, under his brother-in-law, Emperor Leo (457–474). Basiliscus commanded the army for an inva ...

* 468–474: Armatus * 474: Heraclius of Edessa * 511: Hypatius * 512– 513: Cyrillus * 513– 515: Alathar * 515: Vitalian * 525-c. 530: Germanus * 530–533: Chilbudius * 550–c. 554: Artabanes * 588: Priscus (1st time) * 593: Priscus (2nd time) * 593–594:

Peter Peter may refer to: People * List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Peter (given name) ** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church * Peter (surname), a sur ...

(1st time) * 594–c. 598: Priscus (2nd time) * 598–601:

* 601–602:

(2nd time)

''Praesentalis''

* 351–361: Arbitio, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1112 * 361–363: Nevitta, ''magister equitum'' under JulianPLRE I, p. 1113 * 363–379: Victor, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 366–378: Flavius Arinthaeus, ''magister peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 364–369: Flavius Iovinus, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 364–366: Dagalaifus, ''magister peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 367–372: Severus, ''magister peditum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 369–373: Flavius Theodosius, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 375–388: Merobaudes, ''magister peditum'' under

, Gratian and Magnus Maximus * 388–395:

Timasius Flavius Timasius (died 396) was a general of the Roman Empire, a relative of the Empress Aelia Flaccilla, wife of Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395). Biography Timasius was a Roman officer, serving under the command of Emperor Valens (r. 364–378 ...

* 394–408:

, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 399–400: Gainas * 400:

* 409: Varanes and ArsaciusPLRE I, p. 152 * 419–:

Plinta Flavius Plinta ( 418–438) was a Gothic politician and general of the Eastern Roman Empire. He held the title ''comes'', and then became consul and '' magister militum praesentialis''. Biography In 418, as ''comes'', he suppressed a revolt i ...

* 434–449: Areobindus? * 443–451: Apollonius * 450–451: Anatolius * 475–477/478: Armatus * 485–: Longinus * 492–499:

John the Hunchback John the Hunchback or John ''Gibbo'' (Greek: Ίωάννης ό Κυρτός, la, Flavius Ioannes qui est Gibbus; ''floruit'' 492–499) was a general and a politician of the Eastern Roman Empire. Biography John was a native of Selymbria, moder ...

* 518–520: Vitalian * 520–?: Justinian * 528: Leontius * 528–529: Phocas * 520–538/9: Sittas * 536: Germanus * 536: Maxentianus * 546–548: Artabanes * 548/9–552: Suartuas * 562: Constantinianus (uncertain) * 582: Germanus (uncertain) * 585–c. 586:

* 626:

(uncertain)

''Per Africam''

Western Empire

* 373–375: Flavius Theodosius, ''magister equitum ''PLRE I, p. 1113 * 386–398:

Gildo Gildo (died 398) was a Roman Berber general in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis. He revolted against Honorius and the Western Roman Empire ( Gildonic war), but was defeated and possibly committed suicide or was assassinated. Etymology Th ...

, ''magister equitum et peditum''

Eastern Empire

* 534–536: Solomon * 536–539: Germanus * 539–544: Solomon * 544–546: Sergius * 545–546: Areobindus * 546: Artabanes * 546–552: John Troglita * 578–590:

Gennadius Gennadius or Gennadios may refer to: People * Gennadius of Constantinople (died 471), Patriarch of Constantinople from 458 to 471 * Gennadius of Massilia (5th century) Roman historian, best known for his work ''De Viris Illustribus'' * Gennadius ( ...

''Magister militae'' in Byzantine and medieval Italy

Venice

* 8th century: Marcellus * 737: Domenico Leoni under Leo III the Isaurian * 738: Felice Cornicola under Leo III the Isaurian * 739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian * 741: Ioannes Fabriacius under Leo III the Isaurian * 764–787: Mauricius Galba

Later, less formal use of the term

By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the ''

Gesta Herwardi Hereward the Wake (Traditional pronunciation /ˈhɛ.rɛ.ward/, modern pronunciation /ˈhɛ.rɪ.wəd/) (1035 – 1072) (also known as Hereward the Outlaw or Hereward the Exile) was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman and a leader of local resista ...

'', the hero is several times described as ''magister militum'' by the man who translated the original

Old English Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th c ...

account into

Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functione ...

. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the ''hereward''' ( and ) – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical concept seems clear.Gesta Herwardi
The term is used in chapters XII, XIV, XXII and XXIII. Se

for details.

References

Citations

Sources

* *

Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire ''Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'' (abbreviated as ''PLRE'') is a work of Roman prosopography published in a set of three volumes collectively describing many of the people attested to have lived in the Roman Empire from AD 260, the date ...

(PLRE), Vols. I-III {{DEFAULTSORT:Magister Militum Ancient Roman titles Positions of authority Byzantine military offices Late Roman military ranks Military ranks