T. H. Marshall Thomas Humphrey Marshall (1893–1981) was an English sociologist who is best known for his essay " Citizenship and Social Class," a key work on citizenship that introduced the idea that full citizenship includes civil, political, and social ci ...

social citizenship Social citizenship was a term first coined by T. H. Marshall, who argued that the ideal citizenship experience entails access to political, civil and social rights in a state.Rummery, Kirstein. (2002). "Disability, Citizenship and Community Ca ...

is a political concept first highlighted in his essay, “Citizenship and the Social Class” in 1949.

Overview

Marshall's concept defines the social responsibilities the state has to its citizens or, as Marshall puts it, “from rantingthe right to a modicum of

economic welfare The welfare definition of economics is an attempt by Alfred Marshall, a pioneer of neoclassical economics, to redefine his field of study. This definition expands the field of economic science to a larger study of humanity. Specifically, Marshall's ...

and security to the right to share to the full in the social heritage and to live the life of a civilized being according to the standards prevailing in the society”.Marshall, T H. Citizenship and Social Class: And Other Essays. Cambridge ng.: University Press, 1950. Print. One of the key points made by Marshall is his belief in an evolution of rights in England acquired via citizenship, from “civil rights in the eighteenth [century], political in the nineteenth, and social in the twentieth”. This evolution however, has been criticized by many for only being from the perspective of the white working man. Marshall concludes his essay with three major factors for the evolution of

social rights Economic, social and cultural rights, (ESCR) are socio-economic human rights, such as the right to education, right to housing, right to an adequate standard of living, right to health, victims' rights and the right to science and culture. Eco ...

and for their further evolution, listed below: # The lessening of the income gap # “The great extension of the area of common culture and common experience” # An enlargement of citizenship and more rights granted to these citizens. Many of the social responsibilities of a state have since become a major part of many state’s policies (see United States Social Security). However, these have also become controversial issues as there is a debate over whether a citizen truly has the

right to education The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of international conventions, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognizes a right to free, compulsory primary education for ...

and even more so, to

social welfare Welfare, or commonly social welfare, is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifical ...

Criticism

From neo-liberals

“

Neo-Liberal Neoliberalism (also neo-liberalism) is a term used to signify the late 20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with free-market capitalism after it fell into decline following the Second World War. A prominent fa ...

(Free-Market) ideology ssertsthat state abstention from economic protection is the foundation of a good society”,McCluskey, Martha. "Efficiency and Social Citizenship: Challenging the Neoliberal Attack on the Welfare State †." Indiana Law Journal 78:783 (2002): n. pag. Indiana Law Journal . Web. 26 Nov. 2011.3. thus they are diametrically opposed to the social rights proposed by Marshall. Neo-liberals instead suggest that welfare programs (some of the social responsibilities discussed by Marshall to help the poor “effectively utilize their civil and political rights”), have “promoted passivity among the poor, without actually improving their chances, and created a culture of dependency”.Kymlicka, Will, and Wayne Norman. "Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory."Ethics 104 (1994): 352-376. Print. They instead suggest (and have implemented) welfare requiring fulfillment of obligations. Proponents of

are very critical of the Neo-Liberal ideology, suggesting that it is an “assault on the very principle of citizenship”, and that the Neo-Liberal institution of fulfillment of obligations as requirement for citizenship, because they suggest that citizenship is inherent and that “that is only appropriate to demand fulfillment of the responsibilities after the right to participate is achieved”.

From feminists

Some feminist scholars argue that Marshall’s essay only reflects the perspective of working class white males. His assertion that in England all people were free and had civil rights is false, as only men had any “legal freedom” or ability to exercise

political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that stud ...

or civil rights. Thus, they argue that Marshall fails to discuss the issue of

second-class citizen A second-class citizen is a person who is systematically and actively discriminated against within a state or other political jurisdiction, despite their nominal status as a citizen or a legal resident there. While not necessarily slaves, o ...

s and that “he takes for granted the gender and racial hierarchies” Fraser, Nancy, and Linda Gordon. 1992. “Contract versus Charity: Why Is There No Social Citizenship in the United States?” Socialist Review 22: 45–65 within society is a fundamental flaw in his work. However, while Marshall did not discuss the problems associated with having second-class citizenry, he did acknowledge that “citizenship itself asfunctioned as an architect of

social inequality Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. It posses and creates gender c ...

”. Additionally, many feminists see the expansion of social rights as an inherently good thing, especially as today; women in many countries have the same civil and political rights as men. And, feminists see social rights as giving an opportunity to many women to utilize their civil and political rights (just as Marshall suggests white men in England in the 1940s are able to do). Especially as current free-market solutions “ mbrace’a racialized, genderized, and class-biased vision of social equity and community solidarity that favors the interests of the most privileged members of society”. Without resources, traditional hierarchies, with white men at the top, are unable to be combated.

The contract–charity dichotomy

Nancy Fraser Nancy Fraser (; born May 20, 1947) is an American philosopher, critical theorist, feminist, and the Henry A. and Louise Loeb Professor of Political and Social Science and professor of philosophy at The New School in New York City.Jadžić, Milo� ...

and

Linda Gordon Linda Gordon is an American feminist and historian. She lives in New York City and in Madison, Wisconsin. She won the Marfield Prize for ''Dorothea Lange: A Life Beyond Limits'', and the Antonovych Prize for ''Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil ...

in the essay “Contract versus Charity: Why is there no Social Citizenship in the United States?” expanded on T. H. Marshall's original proposition to look at how

gender inequality Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which men and women are not treated equally. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empi ...

has led to a dismissal of social citizenship within the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...

. They argue that, because men were more powerful in

civil society Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere. especially in regards to work with wage contracts. Gradually, the male sphere began to dominate more and more of human relations, and thus contractual relations encroached on more and more areas. Because of “the hegemony of contract… a specifically modern conception of ‘charity’” was generated as a “complementary other.” Thus, welfare and helping the unfortunate became seen as a form of charity, rather than as an obligation. Because of this viewpoint, the receivers of charity were stigmatized for not “earning” the charity. Fraser and Gordon also offer a solution to allowing social citizenship to gain popularity within the United States. They suggest that concentrating the focus of civil citizenship from “property-centered to a more solidaristic form” would allow citizens to reestablish ties with their community, something they believe is essential for citizens to have in order to believe in welfare and social citizenship as a whole.

Conclusion

T.H. Marshall published his essay in 1949 and it has had a huge impact on many of the citizenship debates which have followed it. Though the original essay fails to view perspectives other than that of a working class white male, social citizenship not only can be but has been applied to myriad peoples. The United States has realized the failure of social citizenship, but many industrialized states view social citizenship as their responsibility, even providing welfare outside of their own borders. Marshall’s articulation of the idea of social citizenship was vital to the idea’s proliferation.

References

{{Reflist Civil rights and liberties Citizenship