Straight-line wind

In meteorology, a downburst is a strong downward and outward gushing wind system that emanates from a point source above and blows radially, that is, in straight lines in all directions from the area of impact at surface level. Capable of producing damaging winds, it may sometimes be confused with a tornado, where high-velocity winds circle a central area, and air moves inward and upward. These usually last for seconds to minutes. Downbursts are particularly strong downdrafts within thunderstorms (or deep, moist convection as sometimes downbursts emanate from cumulonimbus or even cumulus congestus clouds that are not producing lightning).

Downbursts are most often created by an area of significantly precipitation-cooled air that, after reaching the surface ( subsiding), spreads out in all directions producing strong winds. Dry downbursts are associated with thunderstorms that exhibit very little rain, while wet downbursts are created by thunderstorms with significant amounts of precipitation. Microbursts and macrobursts are downbursts at very small and larger scales, respectively. A rare variety of dry downburst, the heat burst, is created by vertical currents on the backside of old outflow boundaries and squall lines where rainfall is lacking. Heat bursts generate significantly higher temperatures due to the lack of rain-cooled air in their formation and compressional heating during descent. Downbursts create vertical wind shear, which is dangerous to aviation, especially during landing (or takeoff). Several fatal and historic crashes in past decades are attributed to the phenomenon and flight crew training goes to great lengths on how to properly recognize and recover from a downburst/wind shear event; wind shear recovery, among other adverse weather events, are standard topics across the world in flight simulator training that flight crews receive and must successfully complete. Detection and nowcasting technology was also implemented in much of the world and particularly around major airports, which in many cases actually have wind shear detection equipment on the field. This detection equipment helps air traffic controllers and pilots make decisions on the safety and feasibility of operating on or in the vicinity of the airport during storms.

Definition

A downburst is created by a column of sinking air that after hitting the surface spreads out in all directions and is capable of producing damaging straight-line winds of over , often producing damage similar to, but distinguishable from, that caused by tornadoes. Downburst damage radiates from a central point as the descending column spreads out when hitting the surface, whereas tornado damage tends towards convergent damage consistent with rotating winds. To differentiate between tornado damage and damage from a downburst, the term straight-line winds is applied to damage from microbursts.

Downbursts in air that is precipitation free or contains virga are known as dry downbursts;Fernando Caracena, Ronald L. Holle, and Charles A. Doswell III
Microbursts: A Handbook for Visual Identification.
Retrieved on 9 July 2008. those accompanied with precipitation are known as wet downbursts. These generally are formed by precipitation-cooled air rushing to the surface, but they perhaps also could be powered by strong winds aloft being deflected toward the surface by dynamical processes in a thunderstorm (see rear flank downdraft). Most downbursts are less than in extent: these are called microbursts.Glossary of Meteorology
Macroburst.
Retrieved on 30 July 2008. Downbursts larger than in extent are sometimes called macrobursts. Downbursts can occur over large areas. In the extreme case, a series of continuing downbursts results in a derecho, which covers huge areas of more than wide and over long, persisting for 12 hours or more, and which is associated with some of the most intense straight-line winds,.

The term microburst was defined by mesoscale meteorology expert Ted Fujita as affecting an area in diameter or less, distinguishing them as a type of downburst and apart from common wind shear which can encompass greater areas. Fujita also coined the term macroburst for downbursts larger than .

Dry microbursts

When rain falls below the cloud base or is mixed with dry air, it begins to evaporate and this evaporation process cools the air. The denser cool air descends and accelerates as it approaches the surface. When the cool air approaches the surface, it spreads out in all directions. High winds spread out in this type of pattern showing little or no curvature are known as straight-line winds.

Dry microbursts are typically produced by high based thunderstorms that contain little to no surface rainfall. They occur in environments characterized by a thermodynamic profile exhibiting an inverted-V at thermal and moisture profile, as viewed on a Skew-T log-P thermodynamic diagram. Wakimoto (1985) developed a conceptual model (over the High Plains of the United States) of a dry microburst environment that comprised three important variables: mid-level moisture, cloud base in the mid troposphere, and low surface relative humidity. These conditions evaporate the moisture from the air as it falls, cooling the air and making it fall faster because it is more dense.

Wet microbursts

Wet microbursts are downbursts accompanied by significant precipitation at the surface.* Fujita, T.T. (1985). "The Downburst, microburst and macroburst". SMRP Research Paper 210, 122 pp. These downbursts rely more on the drag of precipitation for downward acceleration of parcels as well as the negative buoyancy which tend to drive "dry" microbursts. As a result, higher mixing ratios are necessary for these downbursts to form (hence the name "wet" microbursts). Melting of ice, particularly hail, appears to play an important role in downburst formation (Wakimoto and Bringi, 1988), especially in the lowest above surface level (Proctor, 1989). These factors, among others, make forecasting wet microbursts difficult.

Straight-line winds

Straight-line winds (also known as plough winds, thundergusts and hurricanes of the prairie) are very strong winds that can produce damage, demonstrating a lack of the rotational damage pattern associated with tornadoes. Straight-line winds are common with the gust front of a thunderstorm or originate with a downburst from a thunderstorm. These events can cause considerable damage, even in the absence of a tornado. The winds can gust to and winds of or more can last for more than twenty minutes. In the United States, such straight-line wind events are most common during the spring when instability is highest and weather fronts routinely cross the country. Straight-line wind events in the form of derechos can take place throughout the eastern half of the U.S.

Straight-line winds may be damaging to marine interests. Small ships, cutters and sailboats are at risk from this meteorological phenomenon.

Formation

The formation of a downburst starts with hail or large raindrops falling through drier air. Hailstones melt and raindrops evaporate, pulling latent heat from surrounding air and cooling it considerably. Cooler air has a higher density than the warmer air around it, so it sinks to the surface. As the cold air hits the ground or water it spreads out and a mesoscale front can be observed as a gust front. Areas under and immediately adjacent to the downburst are the areas which receive the highest winds and rainfall, if any is present. Also, because the rain-cooled air is descending from the middle troposphere, a significant drop in temperatures is noticed. Due to interaction with the surface, the downburst quickly loses strength as it fans out and forms the distinctive "curl shape" that is commonly seen at the periphery of the microburst (see image). Downbursts usually last only a few minutes and then dissipate, except in the case of squall lines and derecho events. However, despite their short lifespan, microbursts are a serious hazard to aviation and property and can result in substantial damage to the area.

Downbursts go through three stages in their cycle: the downburst, outburst, and cushion stages.

Development stages of microbursts

The evolution of microbursts is broken down into three stages: the contact stage, the outburst stage, and the cushion stage:
* A downburst initially develops as the downdraft begins its descent from the cloud base. The downdraft accelerates, and within minutes reaches the surface (contact stage).
* During the outburst stage, the wind "curls" as the cold air of the downburst moves away from the point of impact with the surface.
* During the cushion stage, winds about the curl continue to accelerate, while the winds at the surface slow due to friction.

File:Contact stage.svg,
File:Outburststage.jpg,
File:Cushionstage.jpg,
File:ARMOR Downburst.png, Downburst on a weather radar.

On a weather radar Doppler display, a downburst is seen as a couplet of radial winds in the outburst and cushion stages. The rightmost image shows such a display from the ARMOR Doppler Weather Radar in Huntsville, Alabama in 2012. The radar is on the right side of the image and the downburst is along the line separating the velocity towards the radar (green), and the one moving away (red).

Physical processes of dry and wet microbursts

Basic physical processes using simplified buoyancy equations

Start by using the primitive equations, vertical momentum equation:

$= - -g$

By decomposing the variables into a basic state and a perturbation theory, perturbation, defining the basic states, and using the ideal gas law ($p = \rho RT_v$), then the equation can be written in the form

$B \equiv -g = g$

where B is buoyancy. The virtual temperature correction usually is rather small and to a good approximation; it can be ignored when computing buoyancy. Finally, the effects of precipitation loading on the vertical motion are Parametrization (atmospheric modeling), parametrized by including a term that decreases buoyancy as the liquid water mixing ratio ($\ell$) increases, leading to the final form of the parcel's momentum equation:

$= + B - g\ell$

The first term is the effect of perturbation pressure gradients on vertical motion. In some storms this term has a large effect on updrafts (Rotunno and Klemp, 1982) but there is not much reason to believe it has much of an impact on downdrafts (at least to a first approximation) and therefore will be ignored.

The second term is the effect of buoyancy on vertical motion. Clearly, in the case of microbursts, one expects to find that B is negative meaning the parcel is cooler than its environment. This cooling typically takes place as a result of Phase transition, phase changes ( evaporation, melting, and sublimation (phase transition), sublimation). Precipitation particles that are small, but are in great quantity, promote a maximum contribution to cooling and, hence, to creation of negative buoyancy. The major contribution to this process is from evaporation.

The last term is the effect of water loading. Whereas evaporation is promoted by large numbers of small droplets, it only requires a few large Drop (liquid), drops to contribute substantially to the downward acceleration of air parcels. This term is associated with storms having high precipitation rates. Comparing the effects of water loading to those associated with buoyancy, if a parcel has a liquid water mixing ratio of 1.0 Gram, g Kilogram, kg⁻¹, this is roughly equivalent to about 0.3 Kelvin, K of negative buoyancy; the latter is a large (but not extreme) value. Therefore, in general terms, negative buoyancy is typically the major contributor to downdrafts.Charles A. Doswell III
Extreme Convective Windstorms: Current Understanding and Research.
Retrieved on 2008-08-04.

Negative vertical motion associated only with buoyancy

Using pure "parcel theory" results in a prediction of the maximum downdraft of

$-w_ = \sqrt$

where NAPE is the negative Convective available potential energy, available potential energy,

$\hbox = -\int_^ B\,dz$

and where LFS denotes the level of free sink for a descending parcel and SFC denotes the surface. This means that the maximum downward motion is associated with the Integral, integrated negative buoyancy. Even a relatively modest negative buoyancy can result in a substantial downdraft if it is maintained over a relatively large depth. A downward speed of results from the relatively modest NAPE value of 312.5 m² s⁻². To a first approximation, the maximum gust is roughly equal to the maximum downdraft speed.

Heat bursts

A special, and much rarer, kind of downburst is a heat burst, which results from precipitation-evaporated air compressionally heating as it descends from very high altitude, usually on the backside of a dying squall line or outflow boundary. Heat bursts are chiefly a nocturnal occurrence, can produce winds over , are characterized by exceptionally dry air, can suddenly raise the surface temperature to or more, and sometimes persist for several hours.

Danger to aviation

Downbursts, particularly microbursts, are exceedingly dangerous to aircraft which are taking off or landing due to the strong vertical wind shear caused by these events. Several fatal crashes are attributed to downbursts.

The following are some fatal crashes and/or aircraft incidents that have been attributed to microbursts in the vicinity of airports:

* 1950 Air France multiple Douglas DC-4 accidents, Douglas DC-4 (F-BBDE and F-BBDM), Bahrain International Airport - 12 and 14 June 1950
* 1956 Kano Airport BOAC Argonaut crash, Canadair C-4 Argonaut (G-ALHE), Kano Airport – 24 June 1956
* Malév Flight 731, Ilyushin Il-18 (HA-MOC), Copenhagen Airport – 28 August 1971
* Ozark Air Lines Flight 809, Fairchild F-27 (N4215), St. Louis International Airport - 23 July 1973
* Pan Am Flight 806, Boeing 707 (N454PA), Pago Pago International Airport - 30 January 1974
* Eastern Air Lines Flight 66, Boeing 727 (N8845E), John F. Kennedy International Airport – 24 June 1975NASA Langley Air Force Base
Making the Skies Safer From Windshear.
Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
* Continental Airlines Flight 426, Boeing 727 (N88777), Stapleton International Airport - 7 August 1975
* Allegheny Airlines Flight 121, McDonnell Douglas DC-9, Douglas DC-9 (N994VJ), Philadelphia International Airport - 23 June 1976
* Continental Airlines Flight 63, Boeing 727 (N32725), Tucson International Airport - 3 June 1977
* Aeroflot Flight 4225, Tupolev Tu-154 (CCCP-85355), Almaty International Airport - 8 July 1980
* Pan Am Flight 759, Boeing 727 (N4737), Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, New Orleans International Airport – 9 July 1982
* US Airways, USAir Flight 183, McDonnell Douglas DC-9 (N964VJ), Detroit Metropolitan Airport - 13 June 1984
* United Airlines Flight 663, Boeing 727 (N7647U), Stapleton International Airport - 31 May 1984
* Delta Air Lines Flight 191, Lockheed L-1011 TriStar (N726DA), Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport – 2 August 1985
* Mandala Airlines Flight 660, Vickers Viscount 816 (PK-RVU), Pattimura International Airport - 24 July 1992
* Martinair Flight 495, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 (PH-MBN), Faro Airport – 21 December 1992
* USAir Flight 1016, McDonnell Douglas DC-9 (N954VJ), Charlotte/Douglas International Airport – 2 July 1994
* Wuhan Airlines Flight 343, Xian Y-7 (B-3479''),'' Wuhan Wangjiadun Airport - 22 June 2000
* Iberia Flight 1456, Airbus A320 family, Airbus A320 (EC-HKJ), Bilbao Airport - 7 February 2001
* Goodyear Blimp#Accidents, Goodyear Blimp, GZ-20 (N1A, "Stars and Stripes"), Pompano Beach Airpark – 16 June 2005
* Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145, McDonnell Douglas DC-9 (5N-BFD), Port Harcourt International Airport - 10 December 2005
* ADC Airlines Flight 053, Boeing 737 (5N-BFK), Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport - 29 October 2006
* Georgian Airways Flight 834, Bombardier CRJ100/200, Bombardier CRJ100 (4L-GAE), N'djili Airport, Kinshasa Airport - 4 April 2011
* Bhoja Air Flight 213, Boeing 737 (AP-BKC), Islamabad International Airport – 20 April 2012
* Aeroméxico Connect Flight 2431, Embraer 190 (XA-GAL), Durango International Airport - 31 July 2018
* UTair Flight 579, Boeing 737 (VQ-BJI), Sochi International Airport - 1 September 2018

A microburst often causes aircraft to crash when they are attempting to land or shortly after takeoff (American Airlines Flight 63 (Flagship Missouri), American Airlines Flight 63 is a notable exception). The microburst is an extremely powerful gust of air that, once hitting the surface, spreads in all directions. As the aircraft is coming in to land, the pilots try to slow the plane to an appropriate speed. When the microburst hits, the pilots will see a large spike in their airspeed, caused by the force of the headwind created by the microburst. A pilot inexperienced with microbursts would try to decrease the speed. The plane would then travel through the microburst, and fly into the tailwind, causing a sudden decrease in the amount of air flowing across the wings. The decrease in airflow over the wings of the aircraft causes a drop in the amount of lift produced. This decrease in lift combined with a strong downward flow of air can cause the thrust required to remain at altitude to exceed what is available, thus causing the aircraft to stall. If the plane is at a low altitude shortly after takeoff or during landing, it will not have sufficient altitude to recover.

The strongest microburst recorded thus far occurred at Andrews Field, Maryland on 1 August 1983, with wind speeds reaching .

Danger to buildings

* On 21 May 2022, a particularly intense downburst was responsible for the damage in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Maximum wind speeds reaching were surveyed and analyzed by the Northern Tornados Project, in an area measuring approximately 36 km (22 mi) long and 5 km (3 mi) wide. 10 people were killed and many communities experienced significant damage and power outages spanning days as a result of the derecho that moved across Ontario and Quebec. It was one of Canada’s most destructive wind storms in its history, with over $875 million in damages across both provinces.

* On 31 March 2019, a very destructive downburst cluster with characteristics of a small derecho, but too small to satisfy the criteria, impacted across a wide and long swath in the Bara District, Bara and Parsa Districts, Nepal. Occurring at an elevation of Height above sea level, amsl around 18:45 local time, the 30-45 min duration winds flattened many and severely damaged numerous buildings, leading to 28 deaths and hundreds of injuries.
* On 15 May 2018, an extremely powerful front moved through the northeastern United States, specifically New York (state), New York and Connecticut, causing significant damage. Nearly a half million people lost power and 5 people were killed. Winds were recorded in excess of and several tornadoes and macrobursts were confirmed by the NWS.
* On 3 April 2018, a wet microburst struck William P. Hobby Airport, Texas at 11:53 PM, causing an aircraft hangar to partially collapse. Six business jets (four stored in the hangar and two outside) were damaged. A severe thunderstorm warning was issued just seconds before the microburst struck.
* On 23 May 2017, a wet microburst struck Sealy, Texas with winds knocking down trees and power lines. Significant damage to structures was reported across Sealy. Twenty students were slightly injured by flying debris while attending a function at Sealy High School.
* On 9 August 2016, a wet microburst struck the city of Cleveland Heights, Ohio, an eastern suburb of Cleveland. The storm developed very quickly. Thunderstorms developed west of Cleveland at 9 PM, and the National Weather Service issued a severe thunderstorm warning at 9:55 PM. The storm had passed over Cuyahoga County, Ohio, Cuyahoga County by 10:20 PM. Lightning struck 10 times per minute over Cleveland Heights. and winds knocked down hundreds of trees and utility poles. More than 45,000 people lost power, with damage so severe that nearly 6,000 homes remained without power two days later.
* On 22 July 2016, a wet microburst hit portions of Kent and Providence Counties in Rhode Island, causing wind damage in the cities of Cranston, Rhode Island and West Warwick, Rhode Island. Numerous fallen trees were reported, as well as downed powerlines and minimal property damage. Thousands of people were without power for several days, even as long as over 4 days. The storm occurred late at night, and no injuries were reported.
* On 23 June 2015, a macroburst hit portions of Gloucester and Camden Counties in New Jersey causing widespread damage mostly due to falling trees. Electrical utilities were affected for several days causing protracted traffic signal disruption and closed businesses.
* On 23 August 2014, a dry microburst hit Mesa, Arizona. It ripped the roof off of half a building and a shed, nearly damaging the surrounding buildings. No serious injuries were reported.
* On 21 December 2013 a wet microburst hit Brunswick, Ohio. The roof was ripped off of a local business; the debris damaged several houses and cars near the business. Due to the time, between 1 am and 2 am, there were no injuries.
* On 9 July 2012, a wet microburst hit an area of Spotsylvania County, Virginia near the border of the city of Fredericksburg, Virginia, Fredericksburg, causing severe damage to two buildings. One of the buildings was a children's cheerleading center. Two serious injuries were reported.
* On 1 July 2012, a wet microburst hit DuPage County, Illinois, a county west of Chicago. The microburst left 250,000 Commonwealth Edison users without power. Many homes did not recover power for one week. Several roads were closed due to 200 reported fallen trees.
* On 22 June 2012, a wet microburst hit the town of Bladensburg, Maryland, causing severe damage to trees, apartment buildings, and local roads. The storm caused an outage in which 40,000 customers lost power.
* On 8 September 2011, at 5:01 PM, a dry microburst hit Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada causing several aircraft shelters to collapse. Multiple aircraft were damaged and eight people were injured.
* On 18 August 2011, a wet microburst hit the musical festival Pukkelpop in Hasselt, causing severe localized damage. Five people were killed and at least 140 people were injured. Later research showed that the wind reached speeds of .
* On 22 September 2010, in the Hegewisch neighborhood of Chicago, a wet microburst hit, causing severe localized damage and localized power outages, including fallen-tree impacts into at least four homes. No fatalities were reported.
* On 16 September 2010, just after 5:30 PM, a wet macroburst with winds of hit parts of Central Queens in New York City, causing extensive damage to trees, buildings, and vehicles in an area 8 miles long and 5 miles wide. Approximately 3,000 trees were knocked down by some reports. There was one fatality when a tree fell onto a car on the Grand Central Parkway.
* On 24 June 2010, shortly after 4:30 PM, a wet microburst hit the city of Charlottesville, Virginia. Field reports and damage assessments show that Charlottesville experienced numerous downbursts during the storm, with wind estimates at over . In a matter of minutes, trees and downed power lines littered the roadways. A number of houses were hit by trees. Immediately after the storm, up to 60,000 Dominion Power customers in Charlottesville and surrounding Albemarle County were without power.
* On 11 June 2010, around 3:00 AM, a wet microburst hit a neighborhood in southwestern Sioux Falls, South Dakota. It caused major damage to four homes, all of which were occupied. No injuries were reported. Roofs were blown off of garages and walls were flattened by the estimated winds. The cost of repairs was thought to be $500,000 or more.
* On 2 May 2009, the lightweight steel and mesh building in Irving, Texas used for practice by the Dallas Cowboys football team was flattened by a microburst, according to the National Weather Service.
* On 12 March 2006, a microburst hit Lawrence, Kansas. 60 percent of the University of Kansas campus buildings sustained some form of damage from the storm. Preliminary estimates put the cost of repairs at between $6 million and $7 million.
* On 13 May 1989, a microburst with winds over hit Fort Hood, Texas. Over 200 U.S. Army helicopters were damaged. The storm damaged at least 20 percent of the fort's buildings, forcing 25 military families from their quarters. In a preliminary damage estimate, the Army said repairs to almost 200 helicopters would cost $585 million and repairs to buildings and other facilities about $15 million.
* On 4 July 1977, the Independence Day Derecho of 1977 formed over west-central Minnesota. As the derecho moved east-southeast, it became very intense over central Minnesota around midday. From that time through the afternoon the system produced winds of 80 to more than , with areas of extreme damage from central Minnesota into northern Wisconsin. The derecho continued rapidly southeast before finally weakening over northern Ohio.

See also

* Bow echo
* Haboob
* Line echo wave pattern (LEWP)
* List of derecho events
* List of microbursts
* Low level windshear alert system (LLWAS)
* Mesovortex
* Planetary boundary layer (PBL)
* Rear-inflow jet (RIJ)
* Squall
* Vertical draft
* Windthrow

References

Bibliography

* Ted Fujita, Fujita, T. T. (1981). "Tornadoes and Downbursts in the Context of Generalized Planetary Scales". ''Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences'', 38 (8).
* Wilson, James W. and Roger M. Wakimoto (2001). "The Discovery of the Downburst – TT Fujita's Contribution". ''Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society'', 82 (1).
* National Weather Service. "Downbursts". National Weather Service Forecast Office Columbia, SC. 5 May 2010. 4 December 2010. http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cae/svrwx/downburst.htm
* Fujita, T.T. (1981). "Tornadoes and Downbursts in the Context of Generalized Planetary Scales". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 38 (8).
* Fujita, T.T. (1985). "The Downburst, microburst and macroburst". SMRP Research Paper 210, 122 pp.
* Wilson, James W. and Roger M. Wakimoto (2001). "The Discovery of the Downburst – TT Fujita's Contribution". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 82 (1).

External links

University of Illinois WW2010 Project



Downburst event ~ Denton County, Texas
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613074431/http://dentoncounty.com/Departments/Emergency-Services/Emergency-Services/Severe-Weather/Downburst.aspx , date=13 June 2017



Dry downburst event ~ North Carolina statewide, 7 March 2004

The Semi-official Microburst Handbook Homepage
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Taming the Microburst Windshear
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Microbursts
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Forecasting Microbursts & Downbursts
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Severe weather and convection
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